Diferencia entre revisiones de «Gladiador»

[[Archivo:Retiarius stabs secutor (color).jpg|miniatura|Un ''[[Reciario|retiarius]]'' ataca a un ''[[secutor]]'' con su tridente en este mosaico de una villa de Nennig, Alemania (''c''. siglos II y III d. C.)]]

Los juegos de gladiadores ofrecían a sus financiadores oportunidades de autopromoción extravagantemente caras pero efectivas, y ofrecían a sus ''cliens''{{Refn|El patrocinio (''clientela'') era la relación particular en la antigua sociedad romana entre el ''patronus'' (plural ''patroni'', 'patrón') y sus ''cliens'' (plural ''clientes'', 'cliente'). La relación era jerárquica, pero las obligaciones eran mutuas. El ''patronus'' era el protector, patrocinador y benefactor del ''cliens''; el término técnico para esta protección era ''patrocinium''.<ref>Quinn, K., «Poet and Audience in the Augustan Age», ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' II.30.1 (1982), p. 117.</ref> Aunque por lo general el cliente era de una clase social inferior,<ref>Ripley, George; Dana, Charles A. (eds.) (1879) [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_American_Cyclop%C3%A6dia_(1879)/Client Client]. ''[[New American Cyclopedia]]''.</ref> un patrocinador y un cliente podrían tener el mismo rango social, pero el primero poseería una mayor riqueza, poder o prestigio que les permitiría ayudar o hacer favores al cliente (los ciudadanos con un linaje respetable con problemas de dinero o endeudados podrían tener que buscar el patrocinio de libertos ricos, a pesar de que estaban considerados inferiores y no eran ciudadanos). Entre los beneficios que un patrocinador puede conferir se incluyen la representación legal en los tribunales, los préstamos de dinero, la influencia en los negocios o matrimonios, o el apoyo a la candidatura de un cliente para un cargo político o un sacerdocio. A cambio, se esperaba que los clientes ofrecieran sus servicios a su patrocinador según fuera necesario.{{Harvnp|Dillon|Garland|2005|p=87}}|group="n"}} y votantes potenciales un entretenimiento emocionante a un bajo costo o sin coste alguno para ellos mismos.{{Harvnp|Mouritsen|2001|p=97}}{{Harvnp|Coleman|1990|p=50}} Los gladiadores se convirtieron en un gran negocio para los entrenadores y propietarios, para los políticos en ciernes y para aquellos que habían llegado a la cima y deseaban mantenerse en ella. Un ''privatus'' (ciudadano privado) políticamente ambicioso podía posponer el ''munus'' de su difunto padre hasta el momento de las elecciones, cuando un espectáculo generoso podía captar votos; los que estaban en el poder y los que lo buscaban necesitaban el apoyo de los [[plebe]]yos y de sus [[Tribuno de la plebe|tribunos]], cuyos votos podían obtenerse con la mera promesa de un espectáculo excepcionalmente bueno.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Kyle|2007|p=287}}; {{Harvtxt|Mouritsen|2001|pp=32, 109-111}}. Aproximadamente el 12&nbsp;% de la población masculina adulta de Roma podía votar; pero estos eran los más ricos e influyentes entre los ciudadanos y merecía la pena que los políticos se interesaran por ellos.</ref> [[Sila]], durante su mandato como [[pretor]], con ocasión del funeral de su esposa demostró su habitual perspicacia al quebrantar sus propias leyes suntuarias para ofrecer el ''munus'' más lujoso que se había visto hasta entonces en Roma.{{Harvnp|Kyle|2007|p=285}}

 

{{En desarrollo|Furado}}

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Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the Republic and beyond.{{Harvnp|Welch|2007|p=21|ps=Antíoco IV Epífanes de Grecia estaba ansioso por eclipsar a sus aliados romanos, pero los gladiadores se estaban volviendo cada vez más caros y, para ahorrar costes, todos los suyos eran voluntarios locales.}} Anti-corruption laws of 65 and 63 BC attempted but failed to curb the political usefulness of the games to their sponsors.{{Harvnp|Kyle|2007|p=280|ps=Citando a Cicerón ''Lex Tullia de ambitu''}} Following Caesar's assassination and the [[Roman Civil War]], [[Augustus]] assumed Imperial authority over the games, including ''munera'', and formalised their provision as a civic and religious duty.{{Harvnp|Richlin|1992|p=184}} His revision of sumptuary law capped private and public expenditure on ''munera'', claiming to save the Roman elite from the bankruptcies they would otherwise suffer, and restricted their performance to the festivals of [[Saturnalia]] and [[Quinquatria]].{{Harvnp|Wiedemann|1992|p=45|ps=Citando a Dion Casio, 54.2.3-4}} Henceforth, the ceiling cost for a [[praetor]]'s "economical" official ''munus'' employing a maximum 120 gladiators was to be 25,000 denarii; a "generous" Imperial ''ludi'' might cost no less than 180,000 denarii.<ref>Prices in denarii cited in "Venationes," [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/venationes.html ''Encyclopaedia Romana''].</ref> Throughout the Empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state-sponsored [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Imperial cult]], which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the Emperor's divine [[numen]], his laws, and his agents.{{Harvnp|Auguet|1994|p=30|ps=Cada uno de los juegos de Augusto contaba con un promedio de 625 parejas de gladiadores.}}{{Harvnp|Lintott|2004|p=183}} Between 108 and 109 AD, [[Trajan]] celebrated his [[Dacia]]n victories using a reported 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals over 123 days.{{Harvnp|Richlin|1992|p=181|ps=Citando a Dion Casio, 68.15}} The cost of gladiators and ''munera'' continued to spiral out of control. Legislation of 177 AD by [[Marcus Aurelius]] did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, [[Commodus]].{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|p=48}}

== Organización ==

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The earliest ''[[Munera (ancient Rome)|munera]]'' took place at or near the tomb of the deceased and these were organised by their ''munerator'' (who made the offering). Later games were held by an ''editor'', either identical with the ''munerator'' or an official employed by him. As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged.{{Harvnp|Kyle|1998|p=80}} In the Republican era, private citizens could own and train gladiators, or lease them from a ''lanista'' (owner of a gladiator training school). From the Principate onwards, private citizens could hold munera and own gladiators only under Imperial permission, and the role of ''editor'' was increasingly tied to state officialdom. Legislation by [[Claudius]] required that [[quaestor]]s, the lowest rank of Roman magistrate, personally subsidise two-thirds of the costs of games for their small-town communities&nbsp;- in effect, both an advertisement of their personal generosity and a part-purchase of their office. Bigger games were put on by senior magistrates, who could better afford them. The largest and most lavish of all were paid for by the emperor himself.{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|p=43}}{{Harvnp|Wiedemann|1992|pp=440-446}}

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The bodies of ''noxii'', and possibly some ''damnati'', were thrown into rivers or dumped unburied;{{Harvnp|Kyle|1998|p=14 (incluida nota 74)|ps=Kyle contextualiza el ''panem et circenses'' de Juvenal —pan y juegos como sustento para la plebe políticamente apática (''Sátiras'', 4.10)— en un relato de la muerte y ''[[Damnatio memoriae|damnatio]]'' de [[Sejano]], cuyo cuerpo fue despedazado por la multitud y abandonado sin ser enterrado.}} Denial of funeral rites and memorial condemned the shade (''manes'') of the deceased to restless wandering upon the earth as a dreadful ''[[lemures|larva'' or ''lemur]]''.<ref>Suetonius. ''Lives'', "Tiberius", 75. Suetonius has the populace wish the same fate on [[Tiberius]]'s body, a form of ''damnatio'': to be thrown in the Tiber, or left unburied, or "dragged with the hook".</ref> Ordinary citizens, slaves and freedmen were usually buried beyond the town or city limits, to avoid the ritual and physical pollution of the living; professional gladiators had their own, separate cemeteries. The taint of ''infamia'' was perpetual.{{Harvnp|Kyle|1998|pp=128-159}}

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Gladiators could subscribe to a union (''collegia''), which ensured their proper burial, and sometimes a pension or compensation for wives and children. Otherwise, the gladiator's ''familia'', which included his ''lanista'', comrades and blood-kin, might fund his funeral and memorial costs, and use the memorial to assert their moral reputation as responsible, respectful colleagues or family members. Some monuments record the gladiator's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories  —  sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath  —  defeats, career duration, and age at death. Some include the gladiator's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included an engraved trident and sword.{{Harvnp|Hope|2000}}{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|pp=133, 149-153|ps=La utilización de un solo nombre en un memorial de un gladiador generalmente indica un esclavo, dos un liberto o un ''auctoratus'' liberado y, muy poco frecuente entre los gladiadores, tres (''[[Nombre romano|tria nomina]]'') un liberto o un ciudadano romano de pleno derecho. Ver también {{Harvtxt|McManus|2007}} sobre los nombres romanos.}} A wealthy editor might commission artwork to celebrate a particularly successful or memorable show, and include named portraits of winners and losers in action; the Borghese [[Gladiator Mosaic]] is a notable example. According to Cassius Dio, the emperor [[Caracalla]] gave the gladiator Bato a magnificent memorial and State funeral;{{Harvnp|Dunkle|2013|pp=70-71}} more typical are the simple gladiator tombs of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose brief inscriptions include the following:

 

Gladiators were typically accommodated in cells, arranged in barrack formation around a central practice arena. [[Juvenal]] describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: "even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they're separate". ''Retiarii'' were kept away from ''damnati'', and "fag targeteers" from "armoured heavies". As most ''ordinarii'' at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful ''munus''.{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|p=142|ps=Citando a Juvenal ''Sátiras'', 6 [Oxford Fragment 7.13], en la traducción de Peter Green}} Discipline could be extreme, even lethal.{{Harvnp|Welch|2007|p=17|ps=La muerte quemándolo vivo de un soldado que se negó a convertirse en ''auctoratus'' en una escuela española en el año 43 a.&nbsp;C. es excepcional solamente porque era un ciudadano, técnicamente exento de tal obligación y pena.}} Remains of a Pompeian ''ludus'' site attest to developments in supply, demand and discipline; in its earliest phase, the building could accommodate 15-20 gladiators. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible.{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|pp=148-149}}

[[Archivo:Gladiadores después del combate, por José Moreno Carbonero.jpg|miniatura|''Gladiators after the fight'', [[José Moreno Carbonero]] (1882)]]

Despite the harsh discipline, gladiators represented a substantial investment for their ''lanista'' and were otherwise well fed and cared for. Their daily, high-energy, [[vegetarian]] diet consisted of [[barley]], boiled [[beans]], [[oatmeal]], ash and [[dried fruit]].<ref>{{Cita publicación |apellido=Longo |nombre=Umile Giuseppe |apellido2=Spiezia |nombre2=Filippo |apellido3=Maffulli |nombre3=Nicola |apellido4=Denaro |nombre4=Vincenzo|año=2008 |título=The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian! |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3761927/ |publicación=Journal of Sports Science & Medicine |volumen=7 |número=4 |páginas=565 |issn=1303-2968 |pmc=3761927 |pmid=24137094}}</ref><ref>{{Cita publicación |apellido=Kanz |nombre=Fabian |apellido2=Risser |nombre2=Daniele U. |apellido3=Grossschmidt |nombre3=Karl |apellido4=Moghaddam |nombre4=Negahnaz |apellido5=Lösch |nombre5=Sandra|año=2014 |título=Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) - Implications for Differences in Diet |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0110489 |publicación=PLOS ONE |volumen=9 |número=10 |páginas=e110489 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0110489|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4198250 |pmid=25333366}}</ref> Gladiators were sometimes called ''hordearii'' (literalmente "comedores de cebada");{{Harvnp|Mañas|2011|p=261}} romans considered barley inferior to [[wheat]]&nbsp;— a punishment for [[legionaries]] replaced their wheat ration with it&nbsp;— but it was thought to strengthen the body —además era más barata—.{{Harvnp|Mañas|2011|p=261}}<ref>{{cita web |apellido=Follain |nombre=John |título=The dying game: How did the gladiators really live? |sitioweb=Times online |fecha=15 de diciembre de 2002 |fechaacceso=28 de febrero de 2019 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1069977.ece |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085905/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1069977.ece |fechaarchivo=29 de abril de 2011}}</ref> Regular massage and high quality medical care helped mitigate an otherwise very severe training regimen. Part of [[Galen]]'s medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long term health prospects of the gladiators.{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|pp=141-142}}{{Harvnp|Carter|2004|pp=41-68}}

<blockquote>

"He vows to endure to be burned, to be bound, to be beaten, and to be killed by the sword." ''The gladiator's oath as cited by Petronius (Satyricon, 117).''

 

Caesar's ''munus'' of 46 BC included at least one equestrian, son of a Praetor, and two volunteers of possible senatorial rank.{{Harvnp|Barton|1993|p=25|ps=Citando a Dion Casio, 43.23.4-5; Suetonio, en ''César'' 39.1, añade los dos senadores}} Augustus, who enjoyed watching the games, forbade the participation of senators, equestrians and their descendants as fighters or ''arenarii'', but in 11 AD he bent his own rules and allowed equestrians to volunteer because "the prohibition was no use".{{Harvnp|Barton|1993|p=25|ps=Citando a Dion Casio, 56.25.7}} Under [[Tiberius]], the Larinum decree (19 d.&nbsp;C.) reiterated Augustus' original prohibitions.{{Harvnp|Mañas|2011|pp=283, 329}}<ref>{{cita web |otros=Traducción de David Potter, Universidad de Míchigan (ver [https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Senatus/Larinum_Lebek.htm texto original]) |url=http://www.umich.edu/~classics/programs/class/cc/372/sibyl/db/E012.html |título=The Senatus Consultum from Larinium |editorial=Tableta de bronce encontrada en Larino, Italia, y publicada en 1978 |fechaacceso=27 de febrero de 2019 |urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315032958/http://www.umich.edu/~classics/programs/class/cc/372/sibyl/db/E012.html |fechaarchivo=15 de marzo de 2011}}</ref> Thereafter, [[Caligula]] flouted them and [[Claudius]] strengthened them.{{refn|En tiempos de Calígula, puede que se haya fomentado la participación de hombres y mujeres de rango senatorial, en incluso que se les haya impuesto; Dion Casio, 59.10, 13-14 y Tácito, ''Calígula'', 15.32.|group="n"}} [[Nero]] and [[Commodus]] ignored them. Even after the adoption of Christianity as Rome's official religion, legislation forbade the involvement of Rome's upper social classes in the games, though not the games themselves.{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|p=153|ps=Futrell cita a Dion Casio, 62.17.3; ver Dion Casio, 59.10.13-14 y Tácito ''Calígula'', 15.32 sobre el extraordinario desempeño de Calígula como ''editor''; ''Valentiniano/Teodosio'', 15.9.1; Símaco, ''Relaciones'', 8.3.}} Throughout Rome's history, some volunteers were prepared to risk loss of status or reputation by appearing in the arena, whether for payment, glory or, as in one recorded case, to revenge an affront to their personal honour.{{Harvnp|Kyle|1998|pp=115-116, nota 102}}{{Harvnp|Futrell|2006|pp=153, 156}} In one extraordinary episode, an aristocratic descendant of the [[Gracchi]], already infamous for his marriage, as a bride, to a male horn player, appeared in what may have been a non-lethal or farcical match. His motives are unknown, but his voluntary and "shameless" arena appearance combined the "womanly attire" of a lowly ''[[retiarius|retiarius tunicatus]]'', adorned with golden ribbons, with the [[Apex (headdress)|apex]] headdress that marked him out as a [[Salii|priest of Mars]]. In Juvenal's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self-display, applause and the disgrace he inflicted on his more sturdy opponent by repeatedly skipping away from the confrontation.{{Harvnp|Barton|1993|p=26|ps=Citando a Juvenal, 8.199ff}}{{Harvnp|Cerutti|Richardson|1989|p=589}}

{{Main|List of Roman amphitheatres}}

[[Archivo:Colosseum in Rome, Italy - April 2007.jpg|miniatura|The [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]], [[Italy]]]]