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{{cquote|así que Kinadius hijo de Alpinus, primero de los Escoceses, gobernó prósperamente esta tierra de Pictos durante 16 años. La Tierra de los Pictos (Pictland) obtenía su nombre de los Pictos, a los que, como hemos dicho, Kinadius destruyó. ... Dos años antes de venír a la Tierra de los Pictos, había recibido el reino de [[Dál Riata]].}}
<!-- When [[Humanism|humanist]] scholar [[George Buchanan (humanist)|George Buchanan]] wrote his history ''Rerum Scoticarum Historia'' in the 1570s, a great deal of lurid detail had been added to the story. Buchanan included an account of how Kenneth's father had been murdered by the Picts, and a detailed, and entirely unsupported, account of how Kenneth avenged him and conquered the Picts. Buchanan was not as credulous as many, and he did not include the tale of [[MacAlpin's Treason]], a story from [[Giraldus Cambrensis]], who reused a tale of [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] treachery at a feast in [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s inventive [[Historia Regum Britanniae]].
Later 19th century historians such as [[William Forbes Skene]] brought new standards of accuracy to early Scottish history, while Celticists such as [[Whitley Stokes]] and [[Kuno Meyer]] cast a critical eye over Welsh and Irish sources. As a result, much of the misleading and vivid detail was removed from the scholarly series of events, even if it remained in the popular accounts. Rather than a conquest of the Picts, instead the idea of Pictish [[matrilineal]] succession, mentioned by [[Bede]] and apparently the only way to make sense of the [[list of Kings of the Picts]] found in the [[Pictish Chronicle]], advanced the idea that Kenneth was a [[Gael]], and a king of [[Dál Riata]], who had inherited the throne of Pictland through a Pictish mother. Other Gaels, such as [[Caustantín of the Picts|Caustantín]] and [[Óengus II of the Picts|Óengus]], the sons of Fergus, were identified among the Pictish king lists, as were [[Angles]] such as Talorcen son of [[Eanfrith of Bernicia|Eanfrith]], and [[Brythons|Britons]] such as [[Bridei III of the Picts|Bridei]] son of Beli.<ref>That the Pictish succession was matrilineal is doubted. Bede in the ''Ecclesiastical History'', I, i, writes: "when any question should arise, they should choose a king from the female royal race, rather than the male: which custom, as is well known, has been observed among the Picts to this day." Bridei and Nechtan, the sons of Der-Ilei, were the Pictish kings in Bede's time, and are presumed to have claimed the throne through maternal descent. Maternal descent, "when any question should arise" brought several kings of Alba and the Scots to the throne, including [[John of Scotland|John Balliol]], [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert Bruce]] and [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]], the first of the Stewart kings.</ref>
Modern historians would reject parts of the Kenneth produced by Skene and subsequent historians, while accepting others. Medievalist [[Alex Woolf]], interviewed by [[The Scotsman]] in 2004, is quoted as saying:
{{cquote|The myth of Kenneth conquering the Picts - it’s about 1210, 1220 that that’s first talked about. There’s actually no hint at all that he was a Scot. ... If you look at contemporary sources there are four other Pictish kings after him. So he’s the fifth last of the Pictish kings rather than the first Scottish king."<ref>Johnston, Ian. [http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=1149902004 "First king of the Scots? Actually he was a Pict"]. ''[[The Scotsman]]'', [[October 2]] [[2004]].</ref>}}
Many other historians could be quoted in terms similar to Woolf.<ref>For example, Foster, ''Picts, Gaels and Scots'', pp. 107–108; Broun, "Kenneth mac Alpin"; Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100", pp. 28–32; Duncan, ''Kingship of the Scots'', pp. 8–10. Woolf was selected to write the relevant volume of the new Edinburgh History of Scotland, to replace that written by Duncan in 1975.</ref>
A feasible synopsis of the emerging consensus, may be put forward, namely, that the kingships of Gaels and Picts underwent a process of gradual fusion<ref>After Herbert, ''Rí Éirenn, Rí Alban, kingship and identity in the ninth and
tenth centuries, p. 71.</ref>, starting with Kenneth, and rounded off in the reign of [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine II]]. The Pictish institution of kingship provided the basis for merger with the Gaelic Alpin dynasty. The meeting of King Constantine and Bishop [[Cellach I of Cennrígmonaid|Cellach]] at the ''Hill of Belief'' near the (formerly Pictish) royal city of Scone in 906 cemented the rights and duties of Picts on an equal basis with those of Gaels (''pariter cum Scottis''). Hence the change in styling from ''King of the Picts'' to ''King of Alba''. The legacy of Gaelic as the first national language of Scotland does not obscure the foundational process in the establishment of the Scottish kingdom of Alba.
==Background==
Kenneth's origins are uncertain, as are his ties, if any, to previous kings of the Picts or Dál Riata. Among the genealogies contained in the [[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]] Rawlinson B.502 manuscript, dating from around 1130, is the supposed descent of [[Malcolm II of Scotland]]. Medieval genealogies are unreliable sources, but some historians accept Kenneth's descent from the Cenél nGabrain of Dál Riata. The manuscript provides the following ancestry for Kenneth:<blockquote>... '''Cináed mac Ailpín''' son of [[Eochaid mac Áeda Find|Eochaid]] son of [[Áed Find]] son of [[Domangart mac Domnaill|Domangart]] son of [[Domnall Brecc]] son of [[Eochaid Buide]] son of [[Áedán mac Gabráin|Áedán]] son of [[Gabrán mac Domangairt|Gabrán]] son of [[Domangart Réti|Domangart]] son of [[Fergus Mór]] ...<ref>Rawlinson B.502 ¶1696 Genelach Ríg n-Alban.</ref></blockquote>
Leaving aside the shadowy kings before Áedán son of Gabrán, the genealogy is certainly flawed insofar as Áed Find, who died c. 778, could not reasonably be the son of Domangart, who was killed c. 673. The conventional account would insert two generations between Áed Find and Domangart: [[Eochaid mac Echdach]], father of Áed Find, who died c. 733, and his father [[Eochaid mac Domangairt|Eochaid]].
Although later traditions provided details of his reign and death, Kenneth's father [[Alpin II of Dalriada|Alpin]] is not listed as among the kings in the [[Duan Albanach]], which provides the following sequence of kings leading up to Kenneth:<blockquote>
{|
| ''Naoi m-bliadhna Cusaintin chain, ''
| The nine years of Causantín the fair;,
|-
| ''a naoi Aongusa ar Albain, ''
| The nine of Aongus over Alba;
|-
| ''cethre bliadhna Aodha áin, ''
| The four years of Aodh the noble;
|-
| ''is a tri déug Eoghanáin. ''
| And the thirteen of Eoghanán.
|-
| ''Tríocha bliadhain Cionaoith chruaidh, ''
| The thirty years of Cionaoth the hardy,
|}
</blockquote>It is supposed that these kings are the [[Caustantín of the Picts|Constantine son of Fergus]] and his brother [[Óengus II of the Picts|Óengus II]] (Angus II), who have already been mentioned, Óengus's son [[Uen of the Picts|Uen]] (Eóganán), as well as the obscure [[Áed mac Boanta]], but this sequence is considered doubtful if the list is intended to represent kings of Dál Riata, as it should if Kenneth were king there.<ref>See Broun, ''Pictish Kings'', for a discussion of this question.</ref>
The idea that Kenneth was a Gael is not entirely rejected, but modern historiography distinguishes between Kenneth as a Gael by culture, and perhaps in ancestry, and Kenneth as a king of Gaelic Dál Riata. Kenneth could well have been the first sort of Gael. Kings of the Picts before him, from [[Bridei IV of the Picts|Bridei]] son of Der-Ilei, his brother [[Nechtan IV of the Picts|Nechtan]] as well as [[Óengus I of the Picts|Óengus I]] (Angus I) son of Fergus and his presumed descendants were all at least partly Gaelicised.<ref>For the descendants of the first Óengus son of Fergus, again see Broun, ''Pictish Kings''.</ref> The idea that the Gaelic names of Pictish kings in [[Irish annals]] represented translations of Pictish ones was challenged by the discovery of the inscription ''Custantin filius Fircus(sa)'', the [[latin]]ised name of the Pictish king Caustantín son of Fergus, on the [[Dupplin Cross]].<ref>Foster, ''Picts, Gaels and Scots'', pp.95–96; Fergus would appear as Uurgu(i)st in a Pictish form.</ref>
Other evidence, such as that furnished by place-names, suggests the spread of Gaelic culture through western Pictland in the centuries before Kenneth. For example, [[Atholl]], a name used in the [[Annals of Ulster]] for the year 739, has been thought to be "New [[Ireland]]", and [[Argyll]] derives from ''Oir-Ghàidheal'', the land of the "eastern Gaels".
==Reign==
Compared with the many questions on his origins, Kenneth's ascent to power and subsequent reign can be dealt with simply. Kenneth's rise can be placed in the context of the recent end of the previous dynasty, which had dominated [[Fortriu]] for two or four generations. This followed the death of king Uen son of Óengus of Fortriu, his brother Bran, Áed mac Boanta "and others almost innumerable" in battle against the [[Vikings]] in 839. The resulting succession crisis seems, if the Pictish Chronicle king-lists have any validity, to have resulted in at least four would-be kings warring for supreme power.
Kenneth's reign is dated from 843, it was probably not until 848 that he defeated the last of his rivals for power. The Pictish Chronicle claims that he was king in Dál Riata for two years before becoming Pictish king in 843, but this is not generally accepted. In 849, Kenneth had relics of [[Columba]], which may have included the [[Monymusk Reliquary]], transferred from [[Iona]] to [[Dunkeld]]. Other that these bare facts, the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that he invaded ''[[Saxonia]]'' six times, captured [[Melrose, Scotland|Melrose]] and burnt [[Dunbar]], and also that Vikings laid waste to Pictland, reaching far into the interior.<ref>Regarding Dál Riata, see Broun, "Kenneth mac Alpin"; Foster, ''Picts, Gaels and Scots'', pp. 111–112.</ref> The [[Annals of the Four Masters]], not generally a good source on Scottish matters, do make mention of Kenneth, although what should be made of the report is unclear:<blockquote>[[Gofraid mac Fergusa]], chief of [[Airgíalla]], went to Alba, to strengthen the Dal Riata, at the request of Kenneth MacAlpin.<ref>Annals of the Four Master, for the year 835 (probably c. 839). The history of Dál Riata in this period is simply not known, or even if there was any sort of Dál Riata to have a history. Ó Corráin's "Vikings in Ireland and Scotland", available as etext, and Woolf, "Kingdom of the Isles", may be helpful.</ref></blockquote>
The reign of Kenneth also saw an increased degree of Norse settlement in the outlying areas of modern Scotland. Shetland,the Orkneys, Caithness, Sutherland, the Western Isles and the Isle of Man, and part of Ross were settled; the links between Kenneth's kingdom and Ireland were weakened, those with southern England and the continent almost broken. In the face of this, Kenneth and his successors were forced to consolidate their position in their kingdom, and the union between the Picts and the Gaels, already progressing for several centuries, began to strengthen. By the time of Donald II, the kings would be called kings neither of the Gaels or the Scots but of ''Alba''.<ref>Lynch, Michael, ''A New History of Scotland''</ref>
Kenneth died from a tumour on 13 February, 858 at the palace of ''Cinnbelachoir'', perhaps near [[Scone, Perth and Kinross|Scone]]. The annals report the death as that of the "king of the Picts", not the "king of Alba". The title "king of Alba" is not used until the time of Kenneth's grandsons, [[Donald II of Scotland|Donald II]] (Domnall mac Causantín) and [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine II]] (Constantín mac Áeda). The [[Fragmentary Annals of Ireland]] quote a verse lamenting Kenneth's death:<blockquote>Because Cináed with many troops lives no longer<br/>there is weeping in every house;<br/>there is no king of his worth under heaven<br/>as far as the borders of Rome.<ref>Fragmentary Annals, FA 285.</ref></blockquote>
Kenneth left at least two sons, [[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine]] and [[Áed of Scotland|Áed]], who were later kings, and at least two daughters. One daughter married [[Run of Strathclyde|Run]], king of [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]], [[Eochaid of Scotland|Eochaid]] being the result of this marriage. Kenneth's daughter [[Máel Muire ingen Cináeda|Máel Muire]] married two important Irish kings of the [[Uí Néill]]. Her first husband was [[Aed Finliath]] of the [[Cenél nEógain]]. [[Niall Glúndub]], ancestor of the [[O'Neill]], was the son of this marriage. Her second husband was [[Flann Sinna]] of Clann Cholmáin. As the wife and mother of kings, when Máel Muire died in 913, her death was reported by the Annals of Ulster, an unusual thing for the misogynistic chronicles of the age.
==See also==
*[[Scotland in the Early Middle Ages]]
*[[Scotland in the High Middle Ages]]
*[[MacAlpin's Treason]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
''For primary sources see under'' '''External links''' ''below.''
{{refbegin}}
* [[John Bannerman (historian)|John Bannerman]], "The Scottish Takeover of Pictland" in Dauvit Broun & Thomas Owen Clancy (eds.) ''Spes Scotorum: Hope of Scots. Saint Columba, Iona and Scotland.'' T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1999. ISBN 0-567-08682-8
* [[Dauvit Broun]], "Kenneth mac Alpin" in Michael Lynch (ed.) ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History.'' Oxford: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-211696-7
* Dauvit Broun, "Pictish Kings 761-839: Integration with Dál Riata or Separate Development" in Sally Foster (ed.) ''The St Andrews Sarcophagus'' Dublin: Four Courts Press, ISBN 1-85182-414-6
* Dauvit Broun, "Dunkeld and the origins of Scottish Identity" in Dauvit Broun and Thomas Owen Clancy (eds), op. cit.
* [[Thomas Owen Clancy]], "Caustantín son of Fergus" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit.
* A.A.M. Duncan,''The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8
* [[Katherine Forsyth]], "Scotland to 1100" in Jenny Wormald (ed.) ''Scotland: A History.'' Oxford: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-820615-1
* [[Sally Foster]], ''Picts, Gaels and Scots: Early Historic Scotland.'' London: Batsford, ISBN 0-7134-8874-3
* Máire Herbert, "''Ri Éirenn, Ri Alban'': kingship and identity in the ninth and tenth centuries" in Simon Taylor (ed.), ''Kings, clerics and chronicles in Scotland 500–1297.'' Dublin: Fourt Courts Press, ISBN 1-85182-516-9
* Donnchadh Ó Corráin, "Vikings in Ireland and Scotland in the ninth century" in ''Peritia'' 12 (1998), pp. 296–339. [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/Vikings%20in%20Scotland%20and%20Ireland.pdf Etext (pdf)]
* [[Alex Woolf]], "Constantine II" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit.
* Alex Woolf, "Kingdom of the Isles" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit.
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* Sally Foster, ''Picts, Gaels and Scots'' (revised edition, 2005) - a broad and accessible introduction
* Leslie Alcock, [[Society of Antiquaries of Scotland]] monograph ''Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–750'' (2003) - more detail
* Alex Woolf, ''Pictland to Alba: Scotland, 789–1070'', in the ''New Edinburgh History of Scotland'' series, published in 2007.
* ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'' (2001) - articles by expert contributors
* ''[[Historical novels by Nigel Tranter set before 1286#Kenneth|Kenneth]]'' by [[Nigel Tranter]] - fictional interpretation of Kenneth's life
==External links==
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/index.html Annals of Ulster, part 1, at CELT] ([http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100001A/index.html translated])
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100002/index.html Annals of Tigernach, at CELT] (no translation presently available)
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100005A/index.html Annals of the Four Masters, part 1, at CELT] ([http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100005A/index.html translated])
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100028/text002.html Duan Albanach, at CELT] ([http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100028/text002.html translated])
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G105003/index.html Genealogies from Rawlinson B.502, at CELT] (no translation presently available)
*[http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/scothist/booklets/sh1/documents-alba.html The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba]
*[http://www.mimas.ac.uk/~zzalsaw2/pictish.html The Pictish Chronicle]
*[http://www.scotlandroyalty.org Scotland Royalty] -->
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