Diferencia entre revisiones de «Fin del dominio romano en Britania»
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Se han localizado monedas fechadas después del 383 a lo largo de la [[Muralla de Adriano]], lo que sugiere que las defensas no fueron totalmente despojadas de tropas, como se pensaba<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=354}}, ''Britannia, The End of Roman Britain''. Frere hace notar que los hallazgos arqueológicos de monedas fechadas como posteriores a 383 sugieren que Maximus did not strip the Wall of troops.</ref> o, si lo fueran, que fueron devueltos rápidamente tan pronto como Máximo había logrado su victoria en las Galias. En el ''[[De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae]]'', escrito c. 540, por [[Gildas]] se atribuye el final del dominio romano en Britania al éxodo de tropas y administradores de alto rango por parte de Maximus, diciendo que no sólo se marchó con las mejores tropas, sino también con todos los hombres de valía disponibles incluyendo los funcionarios, además de la flor de la juventud britana, para no volver jamás.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Giles|1841|pp=13}}, ''The Works of Gildas'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA13 The History, ch. 14]</ref>
Las incursiones de [[sajones]], [[pictos]] y los [[scotos]] de Irlanda se habían estado produciendo durante todo el [[siglo IV]] d.C, pero aumentó en los años anteriores al 383. También hubo un aumento importante de asentamientos permanentes irlandeses a lo largo de las costas de Gales bajo circunstancias poco claras.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Laing|1975|pp=93}}, ''Early Celtic Britain and Ireland'', Wales and the Isle of Man.</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Miller|first=Mollie|year=1977|contribution=Date-Guessing and Dyfed|title=Studia Celtica|volume=12|publisher=University of Wales|publication-date=1977|publication-place=Cardiff|pages=33–61}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Coplestone-Crow|first=Bruce|year=1981|contribution=The Dual Nature of Irish Colonization of Dyfed in the Dark Ages|title=Studia Celtica|volume=16|publisher=University of Wales|publication-date=1981|publication-place=Cardiff|pages=1–24}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
|last=Meyer|first=Kuno|author-link=Kuno Meyer|year=|date=|editor-last=Evans|editor-first=E. Vincent|editor-link=|contribution=Early relations Between Gael and Brython|contribution-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=m1kJAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA55|title=Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion|volume=I|series=Session 1895–1896|publisher=Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion|publication-date=1896
|publication-place=London|pages=55–86|url=}}</ref> Máximo realizó una exitosa campaña contra los pictos y los scotos,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Mattingly|2006|pp=232}}, ''An Imperial Possession''. La ''[[Chronica Gallica|Chronica Gallica de 452]]'' es citada como de los años 382/383.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=354}}, En "''Britannia'', The End of Roman Britain," Frere sugiere que Maximus podría haber regresado a Britania en 384, tras convertirse en Augusto, en una campaña contra los scoti y los pictos.</ref> aunque los historiadores difieren sobre si esto tuvo lugar en el año 382 o 383. Dichos éxitos militares fueron el origen de su proclamación como Augusto.
En el año 388, Máximo condujo a su ejército a través de los Alpes hacia Italia en un intento de controlar todo el imperio de occidente. El esfuerzo fracasó cuando fue derrotado en [[Panonia]], en la [[batalla del Save]] (en la actual [[Croacia]]) y en la [[batalla de Poetovio]] (en [[Ptuj]], en la actual [[Eslovenia]]), tras lo cual fue ejecutado por el emperador [[Teodosio]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=13}}, ''Age of Tyrants''. Snyder cites Sozomen 7.13, and Orosius 7.35.3-4.</ref>
===389–406===
Con la muerte de Maximo, Britania quedó bajo el control del emperador [[Teodosio]] hasta [[392]], cuando el usurpador [[Eugenio (emperador)|Eugenio]] se hizo con el poder imperial en [[Imperio Romano de Occidente|Roma]] hasta su muerte a manos de Teodosio en [[394]]. Teodosio fue sucedio al año siguiente por su hijo [[Honorio (emperador)|Honorio]] en el trono de Occidente. El poder real, sin embargo, era [[Estilicón]], yerno del hermano de Teodosio y suegro de Honorio.
Britania estaba siendo atacada por [[Escoto|Escotos]], [[sajones]] y [[pictos]] y, en algún momento entre [[396]] y [[398]], Estilicón inició una campaña contra los Pictos,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|2003|pp=62}}, ''The Britons''. La fecha dada para la campaña es 398 y el propio Estilicón se hallaba inmerso en revueltas africanas en la época.</ref> posiblemente una campaña naval con la idea de detener las incursiones de saqueo en la costa este de Britania.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=355}}, ''Britannia'', "The End of Roman Britain".</ref> Pudiera ser que orderanara también campañas contra escotos y sajones en la misma época,<ref name="Jones 1990 307">{{Harvcolnb|Jones|Mattingly|1990|pp=307}}, ''An Atlas of Roman Britain''.</ref> pero en cualquier caso, esta sería la última campaña romana en Britania de la que queda constancia.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Mattingly|2006|pp=238}}, ''An Imperial Possession''.</ref>
En 401 o 402 Estilicón se vio obligado a luchar contra los [[visigodos]] de [[Alarico]] y los [[ostrogodos]] de [[Radagaiso]]. Ante la necesidad de refuerzos, retiró a todas las tropas del [[muro de Adriano]] por última vez.<ref name="Jones 1990 307"/><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|2003|pp=62–63}}, ''The Britons''. Antes de esta orden, Estilicón había encargado nuevas fortificaciones en Britania.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=18}}, ''An Age of Tyrants''. Snyder indica que los enrevesados intentos de Gildas por relatar la historia pueden contener referencias a las acciones de Estilicón en Britania. En ''De Excidio'', ch. 16-18, menciona campañas contra los Scoti, Sajones y Pictos y erróneamente dice que fue entonces cuando se construyó el Muro de Adriano, después de la retirada de las tropas.</ref> 402 es el último año en el que se puede encontrar moneda romana en grandes cantidades en Britania, sugiriendo que, bien Estilicón retiró a las tropas romanas que permanecían en la isla, o que el imperio ya no fue capaz de pagar a sus soldados.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=18}}, ''An Age of Tyrants''.</ref> Mientras tanto, Pictos, Sajones y Escotos continuaban sus ataques, que pudieron incluso verse incrementados. En [[405]], por ejemplo, se cuenta como [[Niall de los nueve rehenes]] saqueó la cossta sur de Britania.<ref name="Frere 1987 357">{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=357}}, ''Britannia''.</ref>
===407–410===
El último día de diciembre de [[406]] (o quizá [[405]]<ref>Michael Kulikowski, "Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain" Britannia 31 (2000:325-345).</ref>), [[Suevos]], [[Vándalos]] y [[Alanos]] que vivían al este de las [[Galias]] cruzaron el [[río Rhin]] cuando estaba congelado y dieron comienzo a la época de las [[invasiones bárbaras]]<ref name="Frere 1987 357"/><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=18}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
Sin respuesta efectiva por parte del imperio, la guarnición romana en Britania temían que las tribus germanas al otro lado del [[canal de la Mancha|canal]] invadieran Britania de forma inmediata, y se dispensaron ante la autoridad imperial -una acción facilitada por la alta probabilidad de que las tropas no hubieran cobrado en los últimos tiempos.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Su intención sería elegir un comandante que les guiara para asegurar su futuro, pero sus dos primeras elecciones [[Marcos (usurpador)|Marcos]] y [[Graciano (usurpador)|Graciano]] no cumplieron sus expectativas y fueron asesinados. Su tercera elección fue [[Constantino III|Constantino]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=19}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
[[File:Constantineiii.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Moneda de Constantino III.]]
En 407 Constantino se puso al frente de las tropas que aún quedaban en Britania y las llevó a Galia, donde buscó apoyos y se proclamó Emperador de Occidente.<ref name="Frere 1987 357"/> Las fuerzas leales a Honorio al sur de los [[Alpes]] estaban ocupadas defendiéndose de los visigodos y fueron incapaces de sofocar la rebelión, dando a Constantino la oportunidad de extender su nuevo imperio hasta [[Hispania]].<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=358}}, ''Britannia''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=19–20}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
En 409 el control de Constantino sobre su imperio se derrumbó. Parte del ejército estaba en España, incapacitado para ayudar al resto de su ejército en la Galia, que fue derrotado por los leales a Honorio. Los germanos ubicados al oeste del Rhin se levantaron contra él, quizá apoyados por los lealistas romanos,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|2003|pp=79}}, ''The Britons''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Higham|1992|pp=72}}, ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons'', "Britain Without Rome".</ref> y los que se encontraban al este cruzaron el río y entraron en la Galia.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=20–21}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref> <!-- Britain, now without any troops for protection and having suffered particularly severe [[Saxons|Saxon]] raids in 408 and 409, viewed the situation in Gaul with renewed alarm. Perhaps feeling they had no hope of relief under Constantine, both the Romano-Britons and some of the Gauls expelled Constantine's magistrates in 409 or 410.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=358–359}}, ''Britannia''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=20}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref><ref>{{Harvcolnb|Higham|1992|pp=71–72}}, ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons'', "Britain Without Rome".</ref> The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Zosimus]] (fl. 490's – 510's) directly blamed Constantine for the expulsion, saying that he had allowed the Saxons to raid, and that the [[Britons (historical)|Britons]] and [[Gauls]] were reduced to such straits that they revolted from the Roman Empire, 'rejected Roman law, reverted to their native customs, and armed themselves to ensure their own safety'.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=22}}, ''An Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
It has been suggested{{by whom|date=November 2013}} that when [[Zosimus]] records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration in 409 he might have been referring to the [[Bagaudae|Bacaudic]] rebellion of the [[Breton people|Breton]] inhabitants of [[Armorica]] since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the [[Britannia|Brettaniai]]. A later appeal for help by the British communities was, according to Zosimus, rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410 AD. In the text called the ''[[Rescript]] of [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]'' of 411, the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British ''[[civitates]]'' to look to their own defence as his regime was still fighting usurpers in the south of Gaul and trying to deal with the Visigoths who were in the very south of Italy. The first reference to this rescript is written by the sixth-century [[Byzantine]] scholar [[Zosimus]] and is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern [[Italy]]; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to [[Bruttium]] in Italy.<ref>Birley, Anthony Richard ''The Roman Government of Britain'' OUP Oxford (29 Sep 2005) ISBN 978-0199252374 pp.461-463 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=izIMUEgzjm0C&pg=PA461&dq=bruttium+honorius&num=100&as_brr=3&cd=2#v=onepage&q=bruttium%20honorius&f=false]</ref><ref>Halsall, Guy ''Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568'' Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 Dec 2007) ISBN 978-0521434911, pp. 217-18</ref><ref>Discussion in [[Martin Millett]], ''The Romanization of Britain'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' ''Britannia'' vol. 13, 1982, p. 260</ref>
Historian Christopher Snyder wrote that protocol dictated that Honorius address his correspondences to imperial officials, and the fact that he did not implies that the cities of Britain were now the highest Roman authority remaining on the island.<ref name="Snyder 1998 21">{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=21}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref> The idea that there may have been larger-scale political formations still intact on the island has not been completely discredited however.
At the time that the ''Rescript'' was sent, Honorius was holed up in Ravenna by the [[Visigoths]] and was unable to prevent their [[Sack of Rome (410)]].<ref name="Snyder 1998 21"/> He was certainly in no position to offer any relief to anyone. As for Constantine III, he was not equal to the intrigues of imperial Rome and by 411 his cause was spent. His son was killed along with those major supporters who had not turned against him, and he himself was assassinated.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=21–22}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
{{Clear}}
==Interpretative variations==
There are various interpretations that characterise the events in a way that supports a particular thesis without taking issue with the basic chronology.
The historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] (''Britain'', 1885) said that "It was not Britain that gave up Rome, but Rome that gave up Britain ...", arguing that Roman needs and priorities lay elsewhere.
<ref>{{Citation|last=Mommsen|first=Theodor|author-link=Theodor Mommsen|editor-last=Dickson|editor-first=William P. (translator)|year=1885
|contribution=Britain|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WAKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA211|title=The Provinces of the Roman Empire
|volume=I|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|publication-date=1887|publication-place=New York|page=211|url=}}</ref> His position has retained scholarly support over the passage of time.
Michael Jones (''The End of Roman Britain'', 1998) took the opposite view, saying that it was Britain that left Rome, arguing that numerous usurpers based in Britain combined with poor administration caused the Romano-Britons to revolt.
==Factual disputes==
[[File:Mucking DSCF9230.JPG|thumb|Romano-British or Anglo-Saxon belt fittings in the [[Quoit Brooch Style]] from the [[Mucking excavation|Mucking Anglo-Saxon cemetery]], early 5th century, using a mainly Roman style for very early Anglo-Saxon clients]]
Regarding the events of 409 and 410 when the Romano-Britons expelled Roman officials and sent a request for aid to Honorius, Michael Jones (''The End of Roman Britain'', 1998) offered a different chronology to the same end result: he suggested that the Britons first appealed to Rome and when no help was forthcoming, they expelled the Roman officials and took charge of their own affairs.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=25}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref>
One theory that occurs in some modern histories concerns the ''Rescript of Honorius'', holding that it refers to the cities of the [[Bruttii]] (who lived at the "toe" of Italy in modern [[Calabria]]), rather than to the cities of the Britons.<ref>Birley, Anthony (2005) ''The Roman Government of Britain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925237-8, pp. 461–463</ref><ref>Halsall, Guy ''Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568'' Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 Dec 2007) ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1 pp.217-218</ref><ref>Discussion in [[Martin Millett]], ''The Romanization of Britain'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' ''Britannia'' vol. 13, 1982 p. 260</ref> The suggestion is based on the assumption that the source ([[Zosimus]]) or a copyist made an error and actually meant ''Brettia'' when ''Brettania'' was written, and noting that the passage that contains the ''Rescript'' is otherwise concerned with events in northern Italy.
Criticisms of the suggestion range from treating the passage in the way it was written by Zosimus and ignoring the suggestion,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Frere|1987|pp=359}}, ''Britannia'', "The End of Roman Britain".</ref> to simply noting its speculative nature,<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Higham|1992|pp=73}}, ''Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons'', "Britain Without Rome".</ref> to a discussion of problems with the suggestion (e.g., 'why would Honorius write to the cities of the Bruttii rather than to his own provincial governor for that region?', and 'why does far-off southern Italy belong in a passage about northern Italy any more than far-off Britain?').<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=24}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Woolf|first=Alex|author-link=Alex Woolf|year=2003|editor1-last=Goetz|editor1-first=Hans Werner|editor2-last=Jarnut|editor2-first=Jörg|editor3-last=Pohl|editor3-first=Walter|contribution=The Britons: from Romans to Barbarians|title=Regna and Gentes|publisher=Brill|publication-date=2003|pages=346–347|isbn=90-04-12524-8
}}. Woolf cites the argument of E. A. Thompson but does not choose sides, saying that the issue is neither provable nor disprovable.</ref> The theory also contradicts the account of [[Gildas]], who provides independent support that the reference is to Britain by repeating the essence of Zosimus' account and clearly applying it to Britain.<ref name="Snyder 1998 18">{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=18}}, ''Age of Tyrants''. Gildas (''De Excidio'', 18.1) is quoted as saying "The Romans therefore informed our country that they could not go on being bothered with such troublesome expeditions. ... Rather, the British should stand alone, get used to arms, fight bravely, and defend with all their powers their land."</ref>
[[Edward Arthur Thompson|E. A. Thompson]] ("Britain, A.D. 406–410", in ''Britannia'', 8 (1977), pp. 303–318) offered a more provocative theory to explain the expulsion of officials and appeal for Roman aid. He suggested that a revolt consisting of dissident peasants, not unlike the [[Bagaudae]] of Gaul, also existing in Britain, and when they revolted and expelled the Roman officials, the landowning class then made an appeal for Roman aid.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=22}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref> There is no textual proof that that was so, though it might be plausible if the definition of 'bagaudae' is changed to fit the circumstances. There is no need to do this, as any number of rational scenarios already fit the circumstances.<ref>{{Harvcolnb|Snyder|1998|pp=23–24}}, ''Age of Tyrants''.</ref> There is the possibility that some form of bagaudae existed in Britain, but were not necessarily relevant to the events of 409 and 410. The alleged ubiquity of [[Pelagianism]] amongst the British population may have contributed to such a movement if it had existed, not to mention large-scale purges amongst the British elite over previous decades. Among the works that mention but skirt the issue is Koch's ''Celtic Culture'' (2005), which cites Thompson's translation of Zosimus and goes on to say "The revolt in Britain may have involved bacaudae or peasant rebels as was the case in Armorica, but this is not certain."<ref>{{Citation|year=2005|last=|first=|contribution=Civitas|editor-last=Koch|editor-first=John T.|editor-link=|title=Celtic Culture: A historical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABL-CLIO|publication-date=2006|publication-place=|pages=450–451|isbn=978-1-85109-440-0}}</ref>
{{clear}}
-->
==Notas==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Referencias==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation|last=Frere|first=Sheppard Sunderland|author-link=Sheppard Frere|year=1987|title=Britannia: A History of Roman Britain|edition=3rd, revised|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|publication-date=1987|publication-place=London|pages=|isbn=0-7102-1215-1
}}
* {{Citation|year=1841|editor-last=Giles|editor-first=John Allen|editor-link=John Allen Giles|contribution=The Works of Gildas|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA1|title=The Works of Gildas and Nennius|publisher=James Bohn|publication-date=1841|publication-place=London|pages=|url=}}
* {{Citation
|last=Higham
|first=Nicholas
|year=1992
|title=Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons
|publisher=B. A. Seaby
|publication-date=1992
|publication-place=London
|pages=
|isbn=1-85264-022-7
}}
* {{Citation
|last1=Jones
|first1=Barri
|last2=Mattingly
|first2=David
|year=1990
|title=An Atlas of Roman Britain
|publisher=Blackwell Publishers
|publication-date=2007
|publication-place=Cambridge
|pages=
|isbn=978-1-84217-067-0
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Laing
|first=Lloyd
|year=1975
|contribution=
|title=The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD
|publisher=Book Club Associates
|publication-date=1977
|publication-place=
|pages=
|isbn=
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Mattingly
|first=David
|author-link=David Mattingly (author)
|year=2006
|contribution=
|title=An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire
|publisher=Penguin Books
|publication-date=2007
|publication-place=London
|pages=
|isbn=978-0-14-014822-0
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Snyder
|first=Christopher A.
|author-link=Christopher Snyder
|year=1998
|title=An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600
|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press
|publication-date=1998
|publication-place=University Park
|pages=
|isbn=0-271-01780-5
}}
* {{Citation
|last=Snyder
|first=Christopher A.
|author-link=Christopher Snyder
|year=2003
|title=The Britons
|publisher=Blackwell Publishing
|publication-date=2003
|publication-place=Malden
|pages=
|isbn=978-0-631-22260-6
}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book|title=Towns in the dark? : urban transformations from late Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England|first=Gavin |last=Speed|location=Oxford, UK|publisher= Archaeopress Archaeology|year=2014|isbn=9781784910044}}
== Véase también ==
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