Usuario:Lobo/Taller/2
Maus: Relato de un superviviente | ||
---|---|---|
Maus: A Survivor's Tale | ||
Publicación | ||
Formato |
Serie de RAW recopilada posteriormente como novela gráfica | |
Primera edición | 1977 – 1991 | |
Editorial |
Apex Novelties | |
Contenido | ||
Tradición | Alternativo Estadounidense | |
Género | Biográfico / Histórico | |
Dirección artística | ||
Creador(es) | Art Spiegelman |
Maus. Relato de un superviviente (cuyo nombre original es Maus: A Survivor's Tale, referido comúnmente como Maus) es una novela gráfica completada en 1991 por el historietista estadounidense Art Spiegelman. Se trata de un cómic alternativo serializado desde 1980 hasta 1991 en la revista Raw, una publicación vanguardista sobre cómics publicada por Spiegelman y su mujer, Françoise Mouly. La obra, de casi 300 páginas, se publicó inicialmente en dos partes: Mi padre sangra historia (My Father Bleeds History, 1986) e Y allí empezaron mis problemas (And Here My Troubles Began, 1991), integrándose finalmente en un único volumen. Muestra a Spiegelman entrevistando a su padre acerca de sus experiencias como judío polaco y superviviente del Holocausto. El libro hace uso de técnicas postmodernistas, con una llamativa representación de las razas humanas como diferentes tipos de animales: judíos como ratones, alemanes como gatos y polacos no judíos como cerdos. Se ha definido a Maus como libro de memorias, biográfico, histórico, de ficción, autobiogŕafico o una mezcla de géneros.
Una tira de tres páginas, dibujada por Spiegelman en 1972, fue el acicate del autor para entrevistar a su padre sobre su vida durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Las entrevistas grabadas se convirtieron en la base para la novela gráfica, que Spiegelman comenzó en 1978. En 1992, se convirtió en la primera novela gráfica en ganar un premio Pulitzer,[1]. También recibió otros prestigiosos premios, y dio origen a una de las dos vías de la novela gráfica contemporánea, la independiente y autobiográfica, frente a la superheroica y comercial de Watchmen y Batman: The Dark Knight Returns.[2]
En Maus Art Spiegelman narra la historia real de su padre, Vladek Spiegelman, judío polaco, durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, así como las complicadas relaciones entre padre e hijo durante el proceso de elaboración de la historieta, ya en Estados Unidos, donde llegaron los padres de Art tras la guerra. La historia se desarrolla por una parte en Rego Park (Nueva York), donde Vladek Spiegelman cuenta su historia a su hijo Art, que está desarrollando un cómic. Y en los flash-backs de Vladek donde narra sus vivencias durante la guerra. Según Rosa Planas, "es una obra capital sobre el Holocausto por muchos motivos: la originalidad del tratamiento en forma de historias imbricadas, el uso del flash-back, el medio escogido (el cómic) y también el carácter de fábula que comporta el hecho de que los protagonistas sean animales que escenifican comportamientos humanos".[3]
En la línea de tiempo de la narración en presente, la cual comienza en 1978 en Rego Park (Nueva York), Spiegelman habla con su padre acerca de sus experiencias con el Holocausto, con la intención de reunir material para el proyecto que se encuentra preparando: Maus. En la narración en pasado , Spiegelman muestra estas experiencias, comenzando con los años previos a la Segunda Guerra Mundial. La mayor parte de la historia gira en torno a la complicada relación de Spiegelman con su padre, y a la ausencia de su madre, quien se suicidó cuando él tenía veinte años. Su marido, desconsolado, destruyó sus escritos sobre Auschwitz. Formalmente, Spiegelman se enfrenta a problemas de presentación, trabajando con una desgastada metáfora animal pensada para autodestruirse. El libro utiliza un estilo de dibujo minimalista, al tiempo que innova en la disposición de las páginas y las viñetas, en el ritmo y estructura.
Sinopsis
editarLa mayor parte del libro oscila entre dos líneas de tiempo. En el hilo argumental de la narración en presente,[4][4] Spiegelman entrevista a su padre, Vladek, en Rego Park (Nueva York)[5] en 1978-79.[6] La historia que Vladek cuenta se muestra como narración en pasado; comienza a mediados de la década de 1930[5] y continúa hasta el fin del Holocausto en 1945.[7]
En 1958,[6] en Rego Park, un joven Art Spiegelman se queja a su padre sobre que sus amigos se han ido sin él. Su padre responde en un inglés defectuoso: "¿Amigos? ¿Tus amigos? Si os encerrarían una semana en una sala sin comida... entonces sabrías lo que son ¡los amigos!"[8][nota 1]
Como adulto, Art visita a su padre, de quien se ha distanciado.[9] Vladek se ha casado con una mujer llamada Mala después de que Anja, la madre de Art, se suicidara en 1968.[4][4]
Art quiere que Vladek rememore su experiencia del Holocausto.[9] Vladek le habla de su época en Częstochowa,[10], y describe cómo llegó a casarse en 1937 con Anja, de familia adinerada, y cómo se mudó a Sosnowiec para abrir una fábrica. Vladek ruega a su hijo que no incluya esta parte de la historia en el libro, y Art acepta de mala gana.[11] Anja sufre una crisis nerviosa por depresión postparto[12] tras dar a luz a su primer hijo, Richieu,[nota 2] y la pareja acude a a un sanatorio mental en Checoslovaquia —ocupada por los nazis— para que ella se recupere. Tras su regreso, las tensiones políticas y antisemitas van en aumento hasta que Vladek es reclutado justo antes de la invasión nazi. Vladek es capturado en el frente y forzado a trabajar como prisionero de guerra. Después de ser liberado, descubre que Sosnowiec ha sido anexionado a Alemania, por lo que es llevado al otro lado de la frontera en el protectorado polaco. Consigue pasar a hurtadillas por la frontera y se reúne con su familia.[14]
Durante una de las visitas de Art, se encuentra con que un amigo de Mala ha enviado a la pareja uno de las revistas underground en donde Art había contribuido con la historieta Prisionero en el planeta Infierno.[15] A pesar de que Mala había intentado esconderla, Vladek la encuentra y la lee; en la historieta, el suicidio de la madre de Art tres meses después de su alta en el psiquiático lo traumatiza, y termina representándose a él mismo entre barrotes, diciendo: «¡Me mataste, mami!¡¡¡Y me has dejado cargar con la culpa!!!»[4][4] A pesar de que le trae recuerdos dolorosos, Vladek admite que fue bueno exteriorizar el asunto de esa forma.[16]
En 1943, trasladan a los judíos del gueto de Sosnowiec a Srodula, un pueblo cercano, aunque les hacen marchar a diario a trabajar a Sosnowiec. La familia se divide, pues Vladek y Anja envían a Richieu a Zawiercie jungo a su tía, con quien piensan que estará a salvo. Sin embargo, conforme aumentan las redadas y se envían más judíos a Auschwitz, la tía decide envenenar a sus hijos, a Richieu, y a sí misma, para escapar de la Gestapo. En Srodula, muchos judíos —incluyendo Vladek— construyen búnkers para esconderse de los alemanes. El búnker de Vladek es descubierto, y le envían a un "gueto dentro del gueto", una zona separada por alambradas. La familia de Vladek y Anja se queda sin sus últimas pertenencias.[14] Srodula es vacíada de judíos, excepto por un grupo con quien Vladek se esconde en otro búnker. Cuando los alemanes marchan, el grupo se separa y abandonan el gueto.[17]
En Sosnowiec, Vladek y Anja se mueven de un escondite a otro, estableciendo contacto ocasional con otros judíos escondidos. Vladek sale de incógnito en busca de provisiones, haciéndose pasar por polaco no judío. Tras arreglar con contrabandistas su salida del país hacía Hungría, resulta ser un truco: la Gestapo los arresta en el tren y los lleva a Auschwitz, donde son separados hasta después de la guerra.[17]
Por otra parte, Art pregunta acerca de los diarios de Anja, los cuales Vladek le había contado que contenían las experiencias del Holocausto de ella. Son la única forma de saber qué le pasó tras su separación de Vladek en Auschwithz. Vladek le revela a Art que en ellos se decía: «Espero que mi hijo, cuando crezca, se interesa por esto», pero también admite que los quemó tras el suicidio de Anja. Art se enfurece, y llama a Vladek «asesino».[4][4]
La historia salta hasta 1986, después de que los seis primeros capítulos de Maus se publicaran en un solo volumen. Art se encuentra abrumado por la atención inesperada que recibe el libro,[7] y admite estar «totalmente bloqueado». Art habla con su psiquiatra —Paul Pavel, de nacionalidad checa y también superviviente del Holocausto—[18], acerca del libro. Pavel sugiere que, ya que aquellos que perecieron en los campos no podrán contar sus historias, «quizás sea mejor no contar más historias». Art contesta con una cita de Samuel Beckett: «Cada palabra es una mancha innecesaria en el silencio y la nada», pero entonces cae en que «por otra parte, lo dijo».[19]
Vladek habla sobre sus dificultades en los campos, sobre la hambruna y el maltrato, sobre su capacidad para arreglárselas, sobre evitar la selektionen —el proceso de selección en donde se seleccionaban prisioneros para más trabajos o para ejecutarlos—, etc.[20] Aunque es peligroso, Anja y Vladek logran intercambiarse mensajes ocasionalmente. Conforme avanza la guerra y el frente alemán es forzado a retroceder, los prisioneros son trasladados desde Auschwitz —en Polonia— a Gross-Rosen —dentro del Reich—, y luego a Dachau, donde las penurias solo aumenan y Vladek enferma de tifus.[4][4]
La guerra termina, los prisioneros de los campos resultan liberados, y Vladek y Anja se reúnen. El libro termina con Vladek volviéndose en su cama y diciéndole a Art: «Soy cansado de hablar, Richieu, basta de historias de momento...»[4][4][nota 3] La imagen final muestra la tumba de Vladek y Anja; [21] Vladek murió en 1982, antes de que el libro se completara.[22]
Personajes principales
editar- Art Spiegelman: Art[nota 4] (1948)[24] es un historietista e intelectual.[6] Es presentado como egocéntrico, neurótico y obsesivo, rabioso y dado a la autocompasión.[6] Art trata sus propios problemas y los heredados de sus padres mediante ayuda psiquiátrica, [12] que continúa después de completar el libro.[25] Mantiene una tensa relación con su padre, Vladek, [4][4], por quien se siente dominado.[6] Al principio, muestra poca simpatía por las dificultades a las que se enfrenta su padre, pero conforme la historia avanza aumenta su interés.[26]
- Vladek Spiegelman: Vladek[nota 5] (1906–1982)[28] es un polaco judío superviviente del Holocausto que se trasladó posteriormente a Estados Unidos a principios de la década de 1950. Se expresa en un inglés defectuoso,[29] y es presentado como tacaño, austero, de personalidad anal-retentiva, ansioso y obstinado, rasgos que le pudieron haber servido para sobrevivir en los campos, pero los cuales sacan de sus casillas a su familia. Muestra actitudes racistas, a pesar de no apercibirse de ello,[22] como cuando Françoise recoge a un autoestopista afroamericano, y teme que les vaya a robar.[4][4]
- Mala Spiegelman: Mala (1917–2007)[30] es la segunda esposa de Vladek, quien la hace sentir que nunca podrá igualar a Anja.[31] A pesar de que también es una superviviente y habla con Art a lo largo del libro, el personaje de Art no hace ningún intento por aprender de su experiencia del Holocausto.[32]
- Anja Spiegelman: También una judía polaca superviviente del Holocausto, Anja[nota 6] (1912–1968)[28] es la madre de Art y la primera esposa de Vladek. Nerviosa, sumisa y dependiente, tuvo su primera crisis nerviosa tras dar a luz a su primer hijo.[33] En ocasiones habló a Art acerca del Holocausto cuando este era joven, a pesar de que su padre no quería que supiera acerca de ello. Se suicidó cortándose las muñecas en una bañera en mayo de 1968,[34] sin dejar nota de suicidio.[35]
Trasfondo
editarArt Spiegelman, hijo de Vladek y Anja Spiegelman —judíos polacos y supervivientes del Holocausto—, nació en Suecia en 15 de febrero de 1948. Cuatro años antes, su hermano Richieu había sido envenenado por una tía para evitar que los nazis lo capturaran.[37] En 1951, Art emigró junto a sus padres hacia Estados Unidos.[38] Anja le hablaba en ocasiones sobre Auschwitz, aunque su padre no quería que supiera acerca de ello.[25]
Spiegelman desarrolló un temprano interés en los comics y comenzó a dibujar de forma profesional a los 16 años.[39] Pasó un mes en el hospital psiquiátrico estatal de Binghamton in 1968, tras una crisis nerviosa. Poco después de salir, su madre se suicidó.[5] Su padre no estaba contento con la implicación de Art en el movimiento hippie. Spiegelman dijo que cuando se compró un Volkswagen, esto dañó su ya tensa relación "más allá del arreglo".[40] En esa época, Spiegelman había estado leyendo en revistas sobre artistas gráficos como Frans Masereel, quien había realizado novelas sin palabras. Las discusiones en estas revistas sobre crear la "Gran novela americana" en comic le inspiraron.[41]
Spiegelman se convirtió en una figura clave para el movimiento de cómic underground en la década de 1970, tanto como historietista como editor.[42] La obra semi-autobiográfica de 1972 Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary, creada por Justin Green, se convirtió en un influente trabajo que inspiró a otros dibujantes a producir obras más personales y reveladoras.[43] Ese mismo año, Green consultó a Spiegelman para contribuir en una tira de tres páginas para el primer número de Funny Aminals [sic], editado por Green.[42] Spiegelman quería hacer una tira sobre el racismo, y al principio consideró centrarse en afroamericanos, [44] con gatos en el papel del Ku Klux Klan, en persecución de ratones afroamericanos.[45] En su lugar, cambió de idea hacia el Holocausto. La tira se llamó "Maus" y en ella se representaba a gatos nazis, llamados die Katzen, que perseguían a ratones judíos. El relato se narraba a un ratón llamado "Mickey".[42] Despues de finalizar la tira, Spegelman visitó a su padre para enseñarle el trabajo acabado, basado parcialmente en una anécdota que había escuchado sobre la experiencia de su padre en Auschwitz. Su padre le habló más a fondo sobre el trasfondo de la anéctoda, lo que despertó el interés del dibujante para conocer más. A lo largo de cuatro días, Spiegelman grabó una serie de entrevistas a su padre, lo que proporcionó la base para un Maus más extenso.[46] Spiegelman continuó investigando de forma exhaustiva, leyendo informes de supervivientes y hablando con amigos y familia que había también sobrevivido. Para Spiegelman, supuso una fuente de información "realmente importante" una serie de panfletos polacos publicados tras la guerra, donde se detallaba región a región qué pasó a los judíos. A partir de ahí fue capaz de conseguir información detallada sobre Sosnowiec.[47]
En 1973, creó una tira para el primer número de la revista Short Order Comix[48] sobre el suicidio de su madre, titulado Prisionero en el planeta Infierno. Ese mismo año, editó un libro pornográfico y psicodélico sobre citas, el cual dedicó a su madre.[34] El resto de la década de 1970 fue labrándose su reputación mediante la creación comics cortos y vanguardistas. Volvió a trasladarse a Nueva York desde San Francisco en 1975, aunque no se lo comunicó a su padre hasta 1977; para ese entonces había decidido que quería trabajar en un "comic muy largo".[16] En 1978, comenzó otra serie de entrevistas con su padre,[40] y en 1979 visitó Auschwitz.[49] La historia se serializó en la revista sobre comic y gráficos Raw, cuya andadura iniciaron él y Mouly en 1980.[50]
Comics medium
editarAmerican comic books, which had been big business with a diversity of genres in the 1940s and 1950s,[51] had reached a low ebb in the 1970s.[52] By the time Maus began serialization, the "Big Two" comics publishers, Marvel and DC Comics, dominated the industry with mostly superhero titles.[53] The underground comix movement that had flourished in the late 1960s and early 1970s also seemed moribund.[54] The public perception of comic books was of adolescent power fantasies, inherently incapable of mature artistic or literary expression.[55] Most discussion focused on comics as a genre rather than a medium.[56]
Maus came to prominence when the term "graphic novel" was beginning to gain currency. Will Eisner first popularized the term with the 1978 publication of A Contract with God. The term was used partly to mask the low cultural status that comics had in the English-speaking world, and partly because the term "comic book" was being used to refer to short-form periodicals, leaving no accepted vocabulary with which to talk about book-form comics.[57]
Publication history
editarThe first chapter of Maus appeared in December 1980 in the second issue of Raw.[41] A new chapter of the story appeared in every issue as a small insert in the oversized magazine until it came to an end in 1991. Every chapter except the last appeared in Raw.[58]
Spiegelman struggled to find a publisher for Maus,[37] but in 1986, Pantheon collected the first six chapters into a book, after a rave New York Times review.[59] The volume was called Maus: A Survivor's Tale, and subtitled My Father Bleeds History. Spiegelman said he was eager to have the book come out early, even if incomplete, in order to avoid comparisons with the animated film An American Tail from Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment, which he believed was inspired by Maus.[60] The book found a large audience, partly because it was sold through bookstores, rather than the direct market comic shops where comic books were normally sold.[61]
The book was difficult for critics and reviewers to classify, and also for booksellers, who needed to know on which shelves to place it. Pantheon pushed for the term "graphic novel"; Spiegelman was not comfortable with this, as many book-length comics were being referred to as "graphic novels" whether or not they were novelistic. He also suspected the term was being used in an attempt to validate the comics form, rather than to describe the content of the books.[57] Spiegelman later came to accept the term, and, along with Drawn and Quarterly publisher Chris Oliveros, successfully lobbied the Book Industry Study Group in the early 2000s to include "graphic novel" as a category in bookstores.[62]
In 1991, Pantheon collected the last five chapters in the second volume, subtitled And Here My Troubles Began. Pantheon later collected the two volumes into soft– and hard-covered two-volume boxed sets and single-volume editions.[63] In 1994, The Voyager Company released The Complete Maus on CD-ROM, a collection which, as well as the original comics, contained Vladek's taped transcripts, filmed interviews with the author, sketches, and other background material.[64] The CD-ROM was based on HyperCard, a now-obsolete Macintosh-only application.[65] In 2011 Pantheon Books published a companion to The Complete Maus entitled MetaMAUS, with further background material, including filmed footage of Vladek.[37] The centerpiece of the book is a Spiegelman interview conducted by Hillary Chute. It also has interviews with his wife and children, sketches, photographs, family trees, assorted artwork, and a DVD with video, audio, photos, and an interactive version of Maus.[66]
Spiegelman dedicated the book to his brother Richieu and his first daughter Nadja.[67] The book's epigraph is a quote from Adolf Hitler: "The Jews are undoubtedly a race, but they are not human."[68]
International publication
editarThe rights to publish the initial volume in the Commonwealth were licensed to Penguin Books in 1986. In support of the African National Congress's cultural boycott in opposition to apartheid, Spiegelman refused to "compromise with fascism" by allowing publication of his work in South Africa.[69]
By 2011, Maus had been translated into about thirty languages. Three translations were particularly important to Spiegelman: French, as his wife was French, and because of his respect for the sophisticated Franco-Belgian comics tradition; German, given the book's background; and Polish. Poland was the setting for the majority of the book, and Polish was the language of his parents. Spiegelman has said that Polish was his own mother tongue. The German reception was positive—Maus was a best-seller, and was taught in schools. The Polish translation encountered difficulties; as early as 1987, when Spiegelman planned a research visit to Poland, the Polish consulate official who approved his visa questioned him about the Poles' depiction as pigs and pointed out what a serious insult it was. Publishers and commentators refused to deal with the book for fear of protests and boycotts.[70] In 2001, Piotr Bikont, a journalist for Gazeta Wyborcza, set up his own publishing house to publish Maus in Polish. Demonstrators protested Maus's publication, and burned the book in front of Gazeta's offices. Bikont's response was to don a pig mask and wave to the protesters from the office windows.[71] The magazine-sized Japanese translation was the only authorized edition with larger pages.[72] Long-standing plans for an Arabic translation have not yet come to fruition.[45]
For the Hebrew edition of Maus, a few panels were changed. Based on Vladek's memory, Spiegelman portrayed one of the minor characters as a member of the Nazi-installed Jewish Police. An Israeli descendant objected and threatened to sue for libel. Spiegelman redrew the character with a fedora in place of his original police hat, but appended a note to the volume voicing his objection to this "intrusion".[73] This version of the first volume was published in 1990. Its reception was indifferent or negative, and the publisher, Zmora Bitan, did not release the second volume.[74] Another Israeli publisher put out both volumes, with a new translation that included Vladek's broken language, which Zmora Bitan had refused to do.[75] Marilyn Reizbaum saw this as highlighting a difference between the self-image of the Israeli Jew as fearless defender of the homeland, and that of the American Jew as feeble victim,[76] something that one Israeli writer disparaged as "the diaspora sickness".[77][78]
Temas
editarPresentación
editarSpiegelman, como muchos de sus críticos, mostró preocupación debido a que «la realidad es demasiada para los cómics [...] tanta que debe ser quitada o distorcionada», admitiendo que su presentación de la historia no puede ser exacta.[79] Él toma un enfoque postmoderno; Maus «se alimenta de si mismo», contando «la historia de como la historia se hizo». Examina las decisiones que Spiegelman tomó en la narración de los recuerdos de su padre y los dilemas artísticos que tuvo que resolver; por ejemplo, cuando su esposa francesa se convierte al judaísmo, el personaje de Spiegelman se debate entre representarla como una rana o un ratón.[80][81]
En el libro se representa a las diferentes razas como diferentes especies animales: Los judíos son ratones, los alemanes son gatos y el pueblo polaco es representado por cerdos,[82] entre otros. Spiegelman tomo ventaja de la forma en que las películas de propaganda nazi representaban a los judíos,[83] aunque la metáfora se le quedó grabada por primera vez tras acudir a una presentación donde Ken Jacobs mostró filmaciones de espectáculos de minstrel junto con dibujos animados estadounidenses de era temprana, en los que abundaban las caricaturas raciales.[84]
Los personajes judíos tratan de pasar desapercibidos como polacos al colocarse mascaras de cerdo, cuyas cuerdas son visibles por detrás.[85] El disfraz de Vladek era más convincente que el de Anja, él menciona que: «Puedes ver que ella es más judía». Spiegelman demuestra mantenerse fiel a sus creencias al dejar su cola fuera del disfraz.[86][87] Esta literalización de los estereotipos genocidas que llevaron a los nazis a su solución final corre el riesgo de reforzar las etiquetas racistas,[88][89][90] pero Spiegelman usa la idea para darles anonimato a los personajes. De acuerdo con la historiadora de arte Andrea Liss, esto paradójicamente puede permitir que el lector se identifique con los personajes como humano, evitando la observación de las características raciales basadas en los rasgos faciales, y recordando a los lectores que la clasificación racista esta siempre presente.[91]
In making people of each ethnicity look alike, Spiegelman hoped to show the absurdity of dividing people along such lines. Spiegelman has stated that "these metaphors ... are meant to self-destruct"[92] and "reveal the inanity of the notion itself".[93] Professor Amy Hungerford saw no consistent system to the animal metaphor.[94] Rather, it signified the characters' roles in the story rather than their races—the gentile Françoise is a mouse because of her identification with her husband, who identifies with the Holocaust victims. When asked what animal he would make Israeli Jews, Spiegelman suggests porcupines.[95] When Art visits his psychiatrist, the two wear mouse masks instead of having mouse heads.[96] Spiegelman's perceptions of the animal metaphor seem to have evolved over the book's making—in the original publication of the first volume, his self-portrait showed a mouse head on a human body, but by the time the second volume arrived, his self-portrait had become that of a man wearing a mouse mask.[97] In Maus, the characters seem to be mice and cats only in their predator/prey relationship. In every respect other than the heads, they act and speak as ordinary humans.[97]
Memory
editarTo Marianne Hirsch, Spiegelman's life is "dominated by memories that are not his own".[98] His work is one not of memory but of postmemory—a term she coined after encountering Maus. This describes the relation of the children of survivors with the survivors themselves. While these children have not had their parents' experiences, they grow up with their parents' memories—the memory of another's memory—until the stories become so powerful that for these children they become memories in their own right. The children's proximity creates a "deep personal connection" with the memory, though separated from it by "generational distance".[99]
Art tried to keep his father's story chronological, because otherwise he would "never keep it straight".[100] His mother Anja's memories are conspicuously absent from the narrative, given her suicide and Vladek's destruction of her diaries. Hirsch sees Maus in part as an attempt to reconstruct her memory. Vladek keeps her memory alive with the pictures on his desk, "like a shrine", according to Mala.[101]
Guilt
editarSpiegelman displays his sense of guilt in many ways. He suffers anguish over his dead brother, Richieu, who perished in the Holocaust, and whom he feels he can never live up to.[102] The eighth chapter, made after the publication and unexpected success of the first volume, opens with a guilt-ridden Spiegelman (now in human form, with a strapped-on mouse mask) atop a pile of corpses—the corpses of the six million Jews upon whom Maus's success was built.[103] He is told by his psychiatrist that his father feels guilt for having survived and for outliving his first son,[104] and that some of Art's guilt may spring from painting his father in such an unflattering way.[105] As he had not lived in the camps himself, he finds it difficult to understand or visualize this "separate universe", and feels inadequate in portraying it.[25][106]
Racism
editarSpiegelman parodies the Nazis' vision of racial divisions; Vladek's racism is also put on display when he becomes upset that Françoise would pick up a black hitchhiker, a "schwartser" as he says. When she berates him, a victim of antisemitism, for his attitude, he replies, "It's not even to compare, the schwartsers and the Jews!"[107] Spiegelman gradually deconstructs the animal metaphor throughout the book, especially in the second volume, showing where the lines cannot be drawn between races of humans.[108]
The Germans are depicted with little difference between them, but there is great variety and little stereotyping among the Poles and Jews who dominate the story.[109] Sometimes Jews and the Jewish councils are shown complying with the occupiers; some trick other Jews into capture, while others act as police for the Nazis.[110]
Spiegelman shows numerous instances of Poles who risked themselves to aid Jews, and also shows antisemitism as being rife among them. The kapos who run the camps are Poles, and Anja and Vladek are tricked by Polish smugglers into the hands of the Nazis. Anja and Vladek hear stories that Poles continue to drive off and even kill returning Jews after the war.[111]
Language
editarVladek's English is broken in contrast with that of Art's more fluent therapist, Paul Pavel, who is also an immigrant and Holocaust survivor.[112] His knowledge of the language helps him several times during the story, as when he uses it to meet Anja. He also uses it to befriend a Frenchman, and continues to correspond with him in English after the war. His recounting of the Holocaust, first to American soldiers, then to his son, is never in his mother tongue,[113] and English becomes his daily language when he moves to America.[114] His difficulty with his second language is revealed as Art writes his dialogue in broken English;[115] when Vladek is imprisoned he tells Art "... every day we prayed ... I was very religious, and it wasn't else to do".[116] Late in the book, Vladek talks of Dachau, saying, "And here ... my troubles began", though clearly his troubles had begun long before Dachau. This unidiomatic expression was used as the subtitle of the second volume.[115]
The German word maus is cognate to the English word "mouse",[117] and also reminiscent of the German word mauscheln, which means "to speak like a Jew"[118] and refers to the way Jews spoke German[119]—a word not etymologically related to maus, but distantly to Moses.[118]
Style
editarSpiegelman's perceived audacity in using the Holocaust as his subject was compounded by his use of comics to tell the story. The medium was viewed in the English-speaking world as being inherently trivial,[120] thus degrading the subject matter, especially as he used animal heads in place of recognizably human ones.[121] Funny animals have been a staple of comics, and while they have traditionally been thought of as being for children, the underground had long made use of them in adult stories,[122] for example in Robert Crumb's Fritz the Cat, which showed that the genre could "open up the way to a paradoxical narrative realism" that Maus exploited.[123]
Ostensibly about the Holocaust, the story is entwined with the frame tale of Art interviewing and interacting with his father. Art's "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" is also encompassed by the frame, and contrasts visually and thematicically with the rest of the book as all the characters are in human form[48] in a surreal, German Expressionist woodcut style inspired by Lynd Ward.[124]
The line between the frame and the world is bolded by comments such as when Spiegelman, neurotically trying to deal with what Maus is becoming for him, says to his wife, "You'd never let me do so much talking without interrupting if this were real life."[125] When a prisoner the Nazis believe to be a Jew claims to be German, Spiegelman has the difficulty of whether to present this character as a cat or a mouse.[126] Throughout the book, Spiegelman incorporates and highlights banal details from his father's tales, sometimes humorous or ironic, giving a lightness and humanity to the story which "helps carry the weight of the unbearable historical realities".[8]
Spiegelman started taking down his interviews with Vladek on paper, but quickly switched to a tape recorder,[127] face-to-face or over the phone.[47] Spiegelman often condensed Vladek's words, and occasionally added to the dialogue,[127] or synthesized multiple retellings into a single portrayal.[47]
Spiegelman worried about the effect that his organizing of Vladek's story would have on its authenticity. In the end, he eschewed a Joycean approach and settled on a linear narrative he thought would be better at "getting things across". He also strove to present how the book was recorded and organized as an important part of the book itself, expressing the "sense of an interview shaped by a relationship".[47]
Artwork
editarThe story is text-driven, with few wordless panels[7] in its 1,500 black-and-white drawings.[128] The art has high contrast, with heavy black areas and thick black borders balanced against areas of white and wide white margins. There is little gray in the shading.[129] In the narrative present, the pages are arranged in eight-panel grids; in the narrative past, Spiegelman found himself "violating the grid constantly" with his page layouts.[29]
Spiegelman did the original three-page "Maus" and "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" in highly detailed, expressive styles. Spiegelman initially planned to draw Maus in such a manner, but after initial sketches he decided to use a pared-down style, one little removed from his pencil sketches, which would be more direct and immediate. Characters are rendered in a minimalist way, with dots for eyes and slashes for eyebrows and mouths, looking "as if they were human beings with animal heads pasted on them".[33] Spiegelman wanted to get away from the rendering of the characters in the original "Maus", in which oversized cats towered over the Jewish mice, an approach which Spiegelman says, "tells you how to feel, tells you how to think".[130] He preferred to let the reader make independent moral judgments.[131] He drew the cat-Nazis the same size as the mouse-Jews, and dropped the stereotypical villainous expressions.[132] The contrast between the artwork in "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" and Maus drives home the effectiveness of the simpler artwork—"Prisoner" is alienating, while Maus is more inviting, encouraging deeper contemplation and understanding.[36]
Spiegelman wanted the artwork to have a diary feel to it, and so drew the pages on stationery with a fountain pen and typewriter correction fluid. It was reproduced at the same size it was drawn, unlike his other work, which was usually drawn larger and shrunk down, which would hide defects in the art.[45]
Influences
editarSpiegelman has published articles promoting a greater knowledge of of his medium's history. Chief among his early influences were Harvey Kurtzman, Will Eisner,[133] and Bernard Krigstein's "Master Race".[134] He acknowledged Eisner's early work as an influence, but he denied that Eisner's first graphic novel, A Contract with God (1978), had any impact on Maus.[135] He cited Harold Gray's comic strip Little Orphan Annie as having "influenced Maus fairly directly", and praised Gray's work for using a cartoon-based vocabulary, rather than an illustration-based one, for telling his stories.[136] Justin Green's Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary (1972) inspired Spiegelman to include autobiographical elements in his comics. Spiegelman stated, "without Binky Brown, there would be no Maus".[43] Among the artists who influenced Maus, Spiegelman cited Frans Masereel, who had made an early woodcut novel called Mon Livre d'Heures (1919, titled Passionate Journey in English).[41]
Reception and legacy
editarSpiegelman's work as cartoonist and editor had long been known and respected in the comics community, but the media attention after the first volume's publication in 1986 was unexpected.[137] Hundreds of overwhelmingly positive reviews appeared, and Maus became the center of new attention focused on comics.[138] It was considered one of the "Big Three" book-form comics from around 1986–1987, along with Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns, that are said to have brought the term "graphic novel" and the idea of comics for adults into mainstream consciousness.[139] It was credited with changing the public's perception of what comics could be[140] at a time when, in the English-speaking world, they were considered to be for children, and strongly associated with superheroes.[54] Initially, critics of Maus showed a reluctance to include comics in literary discourse.[141] The New York Times intended praise when saying of the book, "Art Spiegelman doesn't draw comic books".[142] After its Pulitzer Prize win, it gradually won greater acceptance and interest among academics.[143] An exhibition on the making of Maus was staged at the Museum of Modern Art in 1992.[144]
Maus proved difficult to classify to a genre,[145] and has been called biography, fiction, autobiography, history, and memoir.[146] Spiegelman petitioned The New York Times to move it from "fiction" to "non-fiction" on their bestseller list,[125] saying, "I shudder to think how David Duke ... would respond to seeing a carefully researched work based closely on my father's memories of life in Hitler's Europe and in the death camps classified as fiction". One editor responded, "Let's go out to Spiegelman's house and if a giant mouse answers the door, we'll move it to the nonfiction side of the list!" The Times eventually acquiesced.[147] The Pulitzer committee sidestepped the issue by giving the completed Maus a Special Award in Letters in 1992.[148]
Maus ranked highly on comics and literature lists. The Comics Journal called it the fourth greatest comics work of the 20th century,[7] and Wizard placed it first on their list of 100 Greatest Graphic Novels.[149] Entertainment Weekly listed Maus at seventh place on their list of The New Classics: Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008,[150] and Time put Maus at seventh place on their list of best non-fiction books from between 1923 and 2005,[151] and fourth on their list of top graphic novels.[152] Praise for the book also came from contemporaries such as Jules Feiffer, and literary writers such as Umberto Eco.[153] Spiegelman turned down numerous offers to have Maus adapted for film or television.[154]
Early instalments of Maus that appeared in Raw inspired the young Chris Ware to "try to do comics that had a 'serious' tone to them".[155] Maus is cited as a primary influence on graphic novels such as Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis and Alison Bechdel's Fun Home.[43]
Academic work and criticism
editarA "cottage industry" of academic research built up around Maus,[156] and schools have frequently used it as course material in a range of fields: history, dysfunctional family psychology,[5] language arts and social studies.[157] The volume of academic work published on Maus far surpasses that of any other work of comics.[158] One of the earliest was Joshua Brown's 1988 "Of Mice and Memory" from the Oral History Review, which deals with the problems Spiegelman faced in presenting his father's story. Marianne Hirsch wrote an influential essay on post-memory called "Family Pictures: Maus, Mourning, and Post-Memory", later expanded into a book called Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory. Academics far outside the field of comics such as Dominick LaCapra, Linda Hutcheon and Terrence Des Pres took part in the discourse. Few approached Maus who were familiar with comics, largely because of the lack of an academic comics tradition—Maus tended to be approached as Holocaust history or from a film or literary perspective. In 2003, Deborah Geis edited a collection of essays on Maus called Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's Tale" of the Holocaust.[133] Maus is considered an important work of Holocaust literature, and studies of it have made significant contributions to Holocaust studies.[159]
According to writer Arie Kaplan, some Holocaust survivors objected to Spiegelman making a comic book out of their tragedy.[160] Literary critics such as Hillel Halkin objected that the animal metaphor was "doubly dehumanizing", reinforcing the Nazi belief that the atrocities were perpetrated by one species on another, when they were actually done by humans against humans.[161] Harvey Pekar and others[162] saw Spiegelman's use of animals as potentially reinforcing stereotypes.[163] Pekar was also disdainful of Spiegelman's overwhelmingly negative portrayal of his father,[164] calling him disingenuous and hypocritical for such a portrayal in a book that presents itself as objective.[165] Comics critic R. C. Harvey argued that Spiegelman's animal metaphor threatened "to erode [Maus's] moral underpinnings",[166] and played "directly into [the Nazis'] racist vision".[167]
Some commentators, such as Peter Obst and Lawrence Weschler, expressed concern over the Poles' depiction as pigs,[168] which reviewer Marek Kohn saw as an ethnic slur.[169] Jewish culture views pigs, and pork, as non-kosher, or unclean—a point that was unlikely to be lost on the Jewish Spiegelman.[168] Critics such as Obst and Pekar have said that the portrayal of Poles is unbalanced—that, while some Poles are seen as helping Jews, they are often shown doing so for self-serving reasons.[170] In the late 1990s, an objector to Maus's depiction of Poles persistently and abusively interrupted a presentation by Spiegelman at Montreal's McGill University, and was expelled from the auditorium.[171]
Literary critic Walter Ben Michaels found Spiegelman's racial divisions "counterfactual". Spiegelman depicts the various European races as different animal species, but Americans, both black and white, as dogs—with the exception of the Jews, who remain unassimilated mice. To Michaels, Maus seems to gloss over the racial inequality that has plagued the history of the U.S.[172]
Other critics, such as Bart Beaty, objected to what they saw as the work's fatalism.[173] Belgian publisher La Cinquième Couche[174] anonymously produced a book called Katz, a remix of Spiegelman's book with all animal heads replaced with cat heads. The book reproduced every page and line of dialogue from the French translation of Maus. Spiegelman's French publisher, Flammarion, forced the publisher to destroy all copies, under charges of copyright violation.[173]
Scholar Paul Bulhe, quoted by Hillary Chute, claims, "More than a few readers have described [Maus] as the most compelling of any [Holocaust] depiction, perhaps because only the caricatured quality of comic art is equal to the seeming unreality of an experience beyond all reason." She also quotes Michael Rothberg as saying, "By situating a nonfictional story in a highly mediated, unreal, 'comic' space, Spiegelman captures the hyperintensity of Auschwitz."[175]
Premios y nominaciones
editarAño | Organización | Premio | Resultado |
---|---|---|---|
1986 | Círculo de Críticos Nacional del Libro | Premio del Círculo de Críticos Nacional del Libro para una biografía[176] | |
1987 | Revista Present Tense Comité Judío Estadounidense |
Present Tense/Premio Joel H. Cavior Book a la ficción[177] | |
1988 | Festival Internacional de la Historieta de Angulema | Premio religioso: Al testimonio cristiano[178] | |
1988 | Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards | Best Foreign Album[179] (Maus: un survivant raconte) | |
1988 | Urhunden Prize | Foreign Album[180] | |
1990 | Max & Moritz Prizes | Special Prize[181] | |
1991 | National Book Critics Circle | National Book Critics Circle Award[182] | |
1992 | Pulitzer Prize | Special Awards and Citations – Letters[183] | |
1992 | Eisner Award | Best Graphic Album—Reprint[184] (Maus II). | |
1992 | Harvey Award | Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Material[185] (Maus II) | |
1992 | Los Angeles Times | Book Prize for Fiction[186] (Maus II) | |
1993 | Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards | Best Foreign Album[187] (Maus: un survivant raconte II) | |
1993 | Urhunden Prize | Foreign Album[180] (Maus II) | |
2012 | Eisner Award | Best Comics-Related Book (MetaMaus)[188] |
Véase también
editarNotas
editar- ↑ En inglés en el original: «Friends? Your friends? If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week, then you could see what it is, friends!»
- ↑ Escrito «Rysio» en polaco. «Richieu» es una mala transcripción por parte de Spiegelman, al no haber visto previamente escrito el nombre de su hermano.[13]
- ↑ En inglés en el original: «I'm tired from talking, Richieu, and it's enough stories for now.»
- ↑ Nacido como Itzhak Avraham ben Zev, al emigrar con sus padres a Estados Unidos se le cambió su nombre por el de Arthur Isadore.[23]
- ↑ Su nombre hebreo de nacimiento es Zev ben Abraham. Art comenta que su nombre polaco era Wladislaw, cuyo diminutivo es Wladek, si bien la pronunciación estándar para estos nombres es "Władysław" y "Władek". "Vladek" es la versión rusa del nombre, el cual adoptó cuando el área en donde vivía se encontraba controlada por Rusia. Esta escritura fue la elegida para Maus, al considerar el autor que era la más sencilla de pronunciar correctamente para angloparlantes. La versión alemana de su nombre era "Wilhelm" (abreviadamente "Wolf"), y se convirtió en William al emigrar a Estados Unidos.[27]
- ↑ De nombre de nacimiento Andzia Zylberberg, y nombre hebreo Hannah. Pasó a llamarse Anna cuando se trasladó a Estados Unidos.[27]
El dibujo
editarArt Spiegelman usa animales antropomórficos: ratones para representar a los judíos (Maus significa ratón en alemán), gatos para los alemanes, cerdos para los polacos, ranas para los franceses, ciervos para los suecos y perros para los estadounidenses, así como peces para los ingleses. Aparte del evidente componente fabulístico, el empleo de esta convención de representación colectiva enfatiza visualmente la "desindividuación" propiciada por el Holocausto, con la reducción del individuo a una mera identidad nacional, étnica o racial (v.gr., alemanes, judíos, polacos) que determina su destino en ese contexto histórico. Como ha admitido el propio Spiegelman, esta convención se inspira, además, en una reapropiación de los dibujos animados (cartoons) norteamericanos, tipo "Tom & Jerry", muy influyentes en la cultura cinematográfica y televisiva de su niñez.
También puede interpretarse como una reivindicación de la autonomía del cómic, demostrando que puede abordar cualquier tema sin abandonar sus convenciones gráficas.[2]
El dibujo es en blanco y negro, con un trazo anguloso y nervioso inspirado en las xilografías de principios de siglo[2]y que, dentro de la vanguardista obra de Spiegelman (muy influida por el expresionismo), resulta contenido.
La traducción
editarEn la novela original en inglés, Vladek Spiegelman utiliza un inglés idiosincrático, que revela su origen judío como hablante habitual de yídish (no solo su origen polaco, como afirma algún traductor[cita requerida]). En la primera edición en español este rasgo desaparecía. Por el contrario, en la edición de Planeta DeAgostini, traducida por Roberto Rodríguez, se mantiene este rasgo característico del personaje, usando recursos propios de la lengua española que tratan de reflejar --aunque de forma exagerada-- la forma original de hablar de Vladek: el personaje confunde los tiempos verbales, los géneros gramaticales, el uso de ser y estar, las preposiciones. En la versión norteamericana original las particularidades del habla de Vladek, como la de otros inmigrantes de origen judío del este de Europa, suelen limitarse a la anteposición de algunos complementos verbales, mal uso de verbos modales, etc., pero su inglés solo supone una desviación muy puntual y reconocible de la norma.[189]
Ediciones en español y en otras lenguas peninsulares
editar- Maus: El relato de un superviviente (V/1989). Editado por Norma Editorial y Muchnik Editores en tapa blanda con solapas. Traducido del inglés por Eduardo Goligorsky. (ISBN 84-7669-093-2). En esta edición sólo se recogieron los seis primeros capítulos publicados originariamente en la revista Raw, correspondientes al original Maus I
- Maus: Historia de un sobreviviente (1994). Editado por Emecé Editores (Argentina) en tapa blanda con solapas, en dos volúmenes (Maus I y Maus II). Traducción del escritor argentino César Aira. Edición reimpresa por Editorial Planeta Mexicana (México DF, 2009) bajo el sello Emecé.
- Maus: Relato de un superviviente (XI/2001). Editado por Planeta Deagostini, en tapa dura, en su colección Trazado. Traducido del inglés por Roberto Rodrígez. En está edición se recogen las dos partes de la obra. A su primera edición, de 6.000 ejemplares,[190] y en la que las cubiertas habían quedado pixeladas debido a un fallo de impresión, siguieron otras tres más en las que el error ya fue subsanado (ISBN 84-395-9159-4).
- Maus: Relat d'un supervivent (2003). Editado por Inrevés SLL (Palma), con varias reediciones. Traducido al catalán por Felipe Hernández (ISBN 84-932615-2-1).
- Maus: Relato dun supervivente (2008). Editado por Inrevés SLL (Palma). Traducido al gallego por Diego García Cruz. ISBN 978-84-935415-4-5).
- Maus (VI/2007). Editado por Mondadori. Traducido por Cruz Rodríguez Juiz (ISBN 84-397-2071-3).
Premios y nominaciones
editarPremios
editar- 1988 Premio Internacional del Festival de Cómic de Angoulême
- 1988 Premio Urhunden al mejor álbum extranjero
- 1990 Premio Max & Moritz, premio especial
- 1992 Premio Pulitzer
- 1992 Premio Eisner a la mejor novela gráfica reeditada
- 1992 Premio Harvey a la mejor novela gráfica reeditada
- 1993 Premio literario de ficción de Los Angeles Times
- 1993 Premio Internacional del Festival de Cómic de Angoulême al mejor cómic extranjero
- 1993 Premio Urhunden al mejor álbum extranjero
Nominaciones
editar- 1986 Premio nacional del círculo de críticos
- 1992 Premio nacional del círculo de críticos
Véase también
editarNotas
editarReferencias
editar- ↑ Listado de los premiados con el Pulitzer en 1992.
- ↑ a b c GARCÍA, Santiago (07/07/2007). De ratones y superhombres, ABCD, pp. 46 a 47, suplemento de ABC.
- ↑ PLANAS, Rosa, "Art Spiegelman", en Literatura i Holocaust. Aproximació a una escriptura de crisi, prólogo de Jaime Vándor, Palma de Mallorca: Lleonard Muntaner Editor, 2006, p. 83.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n ñ o p q ,.
- ↑ a b c d Fathers, 2007, p. 122.
- ↑ a b c d e Gordon, 2004.
- ↑ a b c d Kannenberg, 1999, pp. 100–101.
- ↑ a b Liss, 1998, p. 55.
- ↑ a b Levine, 2006, p. 29.
- ↑ Merino, 2010.
- ↑ Pekar, 1986, p. 54.
- ↑ a b Reibmann, 2001, p. 26.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, p. 18.
- ↑ a b Wood, 1997, p. 83.
- ↑ Levine, 2006, p. 36.
- ↑ a b Kaplan, 2006, p. 114.
- ↑ a b Wood, 1997, p. 84.
- ↑ Weine, 2006, p. 29.
- ↑ Rothberg, 2000, p. 217.
- ↑ McGlothlin, 2003, p. 177.
- ↑ Mandel, 2006, p. 118.
- ↑ a b Wood, 1997, p. 85.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, p. 17.
- ↑ a b Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 292. Error en la cita: Etiqueta
<ref>
no válida; el nombre «FOOTNOTESpiegelman2011292» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes - ↑ a b c Fathers, 2007, p. 124.
- ↑ Harvey, 1996, p. 242.
- ↑ a b Spiegelman, 2011, p. 16.
- ↑ a b Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 291, 293.
- ↑ a b Weine, 2006, p. 26.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 291, 294.
- ↑ Rice, 2007, p. 18.
- ↑ Hirsch, 1997, p. 35.
- ↑ a b Pekar, 1986, p. 56.
- ↑ a b Rothberg, 2000, p. 214.
- ↑ Levine, 2006, p. 35.
- ↑ a b Johnston, 2001.
- ↑ a b c Kois, 2011.
- ↑ Fischer y Fischer, 2002.
- ↑ Fathers, 2007, p. 122; Weiner, 2003, p. 36.
- ↑ a b Fathers, 2007, p. 125.
- ↑ a b c Kaplan, 2008, p. 171.
- ↑ a b c Witek, 1989, p. 103.
- ↑ a b c Chute, 2010, p. 18.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2008, p. 140.
- ↑ a b c Conan, 2011.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 22–24.
- ↑ a b c d Brown, 1988.
- ↑ a b Witek, 1989, p. 98.
- ↑ Blau, 2008.
- ↑ Petersen, 2010, p. 221.
- ↑ Weiner, 2003, pp. 5–6.
- ↑ Duncan y Smith, 2009, p. 68.
- ↑ Duncan y Smith, 2009, p. 91.
- ↑ a b Witek, 2004.
- ↑ Russell, 2008, p. 221; Duncan y Smith, 2009, p. 1.
- ↑ Witek, 2004; Fagan y Fagan, 2011, p. 3; Abell, 2012, pp. 68–84.
- ↑ a b Petersen, 2010, p. 222.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 113.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2008, p. 171; Kaplan, 2006, p. 118.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 118; Kaplan, 2008, p. 172.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 115.
- ↑ McGrath, 2004, p. 2; Morman, 2003.
- ↑ Rhoades, 2008, p. 220.
- ↑ Horowitz, 1997, p. 403.
- ↑ Hignite, 2007, p. 57.
- ↑ Garner, 2011.
- ↑ Liss, 1998, p. 55; LaCapra, 1998, p. 156.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 94; Hirsch, 1997, p. 26; Wirth-Nesher, 2006, p. 169.
- ↑ Smith, 2007, p. 93.
- ↑ Weschler, 2001; Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 122–125.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 122–124.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, p. 152.
- ↑ Mozzocco, 2011; Spiegelman, 2011, p. 154.
- ↑ Tzadka, 2012; Spiegelman, 2011, pp. 152–153.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, p. 153.
- ↑ Reizbaum, 2000, p. 135–136.
- ↑ a b Reizbaum, 2000, p. 139.
- ↑ Translated from Hebrew by Marilyn Reizbaum.[77]
- ↑ Wood (1997), p. 87
- ↑ Young (2006), p. 250
- ↑ Witek (1989), p. 112-114
- ↑ Fathers (2007), p. 122
- ↑ Pustz (2007), p. 69
- ↑ Loman (2010), p. 221–223
- ↑ Witek (1989), p. 106
- ↑ Rothberg (2000), p. 210
- ↑ Hatfield (2005), p. 140
- ↑ Reibmann (2001), p. 25
- ↑ Liss (1998), p. 53
- ↑ Pekar (1986), p. 55
- ↑ Liss (1998), p. 53
- ↑ Bolhafner, 1991, p. 96.
- ↑ Hays, 2011.
- ↑ Hungerford, 2003, p. 86.
- ↑ Hungerford, 2003, p. 87.
- ↑ Pustz, 2007, p. 70.
- ↑ a b Hirsch, 1997, p. 27.
- ↑ Hirsch, 1997, p. 26.
- ↑ Levine, 2006, p. 17; Berger, 1999, p. 231.
- ↑ Merino, 2010; Weine, 2006, p. 27; Brown, 1988.
- ↑ Hirsch, 1997, p. 33–34.
- ↑ Schwab, 2010, p. 37.
- ↑ Kannenberg, 2001, p. 86.
- ↑ Schuldiner, 2011, p. 69.
- ↑ Schuldiner, 2011, p. 70.
- ↑ Schuldiner, 2011, p. 75.
- ↑ Loman, 2010, p. 224.
- ↑ Loman, 2010, p. 225.
- ↑ LaCapra, 1998, pp. 161.
- ↑ LaCapra, 1998, pp. 167–168.
- ↑ LaCapra, 1998, pp. 166–167.
- ↑ Rosen, 2005, p. 158.
- ↑ Rosen, 2005, p. 165.
- ↑ Rosen, 2005, p. 166.
- ↑ a b Rosen, 2005, p. 164.
- ↑ Wirth-Nesher, 2006, p. 168.
- ↑ Levine, 2006, p. 21.
- ↑ a b Levine, 2006, p. 22.
- ↑ Rothberg, 2000, p. 208.
- ↑ Russell, 2008, p. 221.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 97.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 110.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 111.
- ↑ Witek, 2004, p. 100.
- ↑ a b Liss, 1998, p. 54. Error en la cita: Etiqueta
<ref>
no válida; el nombre «FOOTNOTELiss199854» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes - ↑ Kannenberg, 2001, p. 85.
- ↑ a b Rothberg, 2000, pp. 207–208.
- ↑ Weine, 2006, pp. 25–26.
- ↑ Adams, 2008, p. 172.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 104.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 112.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 106.
- ↑ a b Frahm, 2004.
- ↑ Kannenberg, 2001, p. 28.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2008, p. 172.
- ↑ Spiegelman, 2011, p. 196.
- ↑ Weiner, 2003, p. 36.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, p. 94.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2008, p. 172; Sabin, 1993, p. 246; Stringer, 1996, p. 262; Ahrens y Meteling, 2010, p. 1; Williams y Lyons, 2010, p. 7.
- ↑ Witek, 1989, pp. 94–95.
- ↑ Russell, 2008, p. 223; Horowitz, 1997, p. 406.
- ↑ Witek, 2004; Langer, 1998.
- ↑ Russell, 2008, p. 223.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 118; Weine, 2006, p. 25.
- ↑ Orbán, 2005, pp. 39–40; Rhoades, 2008, p. 219.
- ↑ For "biography", see Brown, 1988
For "fiction", see New York Times staff, 1987; Ruth, 2011
For "autobiography", see Merino, 2010
For "history", see Brown, 1988; Ruth, 2011; Garner, 2011
For "memoir", see Ruth, 2011; Garner, 2011 - ↑ Ruth, 2011; Horowitz, 1997, p. 405.
- ↑ Liss, 1998, p. 54; Fischer y Fischer, 2002.
- ↑ Wizard staff, 2009.
- ↑ Entertainment Weekly staff, 2008.
- ↑ Silver, 2011.
- ↑ Grossman, 2009.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 118.
- ↑ Pustz, 2007, p. 73.
- ↑ Ball y Kuhlman, 2010, p. xii.
- ↑ Meskin y Cook, 2012, p. xxiv.
- ↑ Monnin, 2010, p. 121.
- ↑ Loman, 2010, p. 217.
- ↑ Loman, 2010, p. 218.
- ↑ Kaplan, 2006, p. 119.
- ↑ Hatfield, 2005, pp. 139–140; Russell, 2008, p. 221.
- ↑ Park, 2011.
- ↑ Pekar, 1986, p. 55; Pekar, 1990, pp. 32–33.
- ↑ Pekar, 1986, p. 56; Pekar, 1990, p. 32.
- ↑ Pekar, 1986, p. 57.
- ↑ Harvey, 1996, p. 243.
- ↑ Harvey, 1996, p. 244.
- ↑ a b Obst, , "A Commentary on Maus by Art Spiegelman"; Weschler, 2001.
- ↑ Baker, 1993, pp. 142, 160.
- ↑ Pekar, 1990, pp. 32–33; Obst, , "A Commentary on Maus by Art Spiegelman".
- ↑ Surridge, 2001, p. 37.
- ↑ Loman, 2010, pp. 223–224.
- ↑ a b Beaty, 2012.
- ↑ Couvreur, 2012.
- ↑ Chute, Hillary (2006). «"The Shadow of a past Time": History and Graphic Representation in "Maus"». Twentieth Century Literature 52 (2): 199-230.
- ↑ Brown (1988), National Book Critics Circle staff de 2012
- ↑ Brown (1988), New York Times staff de 1987
- ↑ Tout en BD staff, 1998.
- ↑ Tout en BD staff, 1998; Jannequin, 1990, p. 19.
- ↑ a b Hammarlund, 2007.
- ↑ Comic Salon staff, 2012.
- ↑ National Book Critics Circle staff, 2012.
- ↑ Pulitzer Prize staff, 2012.
- ↑ Eisner Awards staff, 2012.
- ↑ Harvey Awards staff, 1992.
- ↑ Colbert, 1992.
- ↑ Tout en BD staff, 1993.
- ↑ Spurgeon, 2012.
- ↑ URDIALES SHAW, Martín. "Reseña de Maus: Relato de un Superviviente" (Planeta de Agostini, 2001) en REDEN (Revista Española de Estudios Norteamericanos), nº 21-22, 2001 [pp 184-187] y "O Maus galego no contexto doutras traducións" en Viceversa: Revista Galega de Tradución nº 16, 2010 [pp 247-257]
- ↑ PADILLA, Andrés y SILIÓ, Elisa (23/11/2001). Expocómic presenta la primera versión íntegra de 'Maus' en España, El País.
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Further reading
editar- Ewert, Jeanne (2004). «Art Spiegelman's Maus and the Graphic Narrative». En Ryan, Marie-Laure, ed. Narrative Across Media: The Languages of Storytelling. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 180-193. ISBN 978-0-8032-8993-2.
- Geis, Deborah R., ed. (2007). Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's tale" of the Holocaust. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5435-0.
- Kannenberg, Eugene P. (2002). Form, Function, Fiction: Text and Image in the Comics Narratives of Winsor McCay, Art Spiegelman, and Chris Ware. University of Connecticut. ISBN 978-0-493-69522-8.
- Miller, Frieda (1998). Maus: A Memoir of the Holocaust : Teacher's Guide. Vancouver Holocaust Education Centre. ISBN 978-1-895754-29-2.
External links
editar- (video) Art Spiegelman and the Making of Maus
- Teacher's guide at Random House
- Questions and Resources for Art Spiegelman's Maus college study guide with archived articles
- Art Spiegelman's MAUS: Working Through the Trauma of the Holocaust. In Responses to the Holocaust, University of Virginia
- «Teaching Resources for Art Spiegelman's Maus: A Survivor's Tale». Buckslib.org. July 11, 2004. Consultado el January 30, 2012.
- Spiegelman, Art (September/October de 1997). «Getting in Touch with My Inner Racist». Mother Jones: 51-52.
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