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[2] {{redirige aquí|Rey de España|Monarquía Española}} Este va a ser mi taller. Vuelta a empezar. Terminando artículo Invasión dórica a partir de en:Dorian invasion.

La invasión dórica es un concepto utilizado por los historiadores de la Antigua Grecia para explicar la sustitución de los dialectos y tradiciones preclásicos en el sur de Grecia por los que prevalecieron en la época Clásica.

La leyenda cuenta que los dorios tomaron posesión de la península del Peloponeso en un hecho llamado el Regreso de los Heráclidas. Los estudiosos de la época Clásica vieron en esta historia un hecho real que llamaron invasión dórica. El significado del concepto ha variado con el tiempo y tanto historiadores como filólogos y arqueólogos lo han utilizado para explicar las discontinuidades culturales que se encuentran en sus respectivos campos de estudio. El momento de la llegada de los dorios a Creta tampoco está claro, aunque los dorios conquistaron algunos lugares como Lato.​

A pesar de 200 años de investigación, la historicidad de la invasión dórica nunca ha sido establecida. Aunque ha permitido descartar otras posibilidades. La posibilidad de que ocurriera en realidad sigue abierta.

El retorno de los Heráclidas

La antigua tradición cuenta que los descendientes de Heracles, exiliados después de su muerte, regresaron después de algunas generaciones, a fin de recuperar el dominio que su antepasado, Heracles, tenía en la península del Peloponeso. La Grecia a la que hacen referencia en el mito es la antiguacivilización micénica. La historia del regreso de los Heráclidas es considerada legendaria, ya que muchos detalles difieren de un autor de la época a otro, por lo que se supone que un clan dominante declaró ser heredero del héroe griego Heracles para legitimar su poder.

La traducción regreso es completamente moderna, ya que en griego tiene una connotación diferente. En griego las palabras son katienai o katerchesthai, literalmente se traduciría como "bajar", "descender" o "ir abajo"; en el contexto de descender de las tierras altas a las tierras bajas, o el descenso del agua en una inundación. Nunca se usa para el retorno a casa, que es la palabra griegonostos (de esa palabra proviene la actual nostalgia) y esta palabra se utilizaría en laOdisea, para referirse al deseo de Odiseo de regresar a casa tras terminar la guerra de Troya. Los Heráclidas no vuelven al hogar, sino que bajan al Peloponeso a guerrear, lo que invita a la moderna traducción de invasión dórica.

Sin embargo, hay diferencias entre los Herácidas y los dorios. El historiador George Grote resume la relación de la siguiente manera:

Heracles había prestado una inestimable ayuda al rey dorio Egimio, cuando este último fue forzado a luchar contra los lápitas. [...] Hércules derrotó a los lápitas, y mató a su rey Coronos; a cambio de lo cual Egimio le dio la tercera parte de todo su territorio, y nombró al hijo de Heracles, Hilo, como su hijo.

En esa época, el Peloponeso era gobernado por los descendientes de Pélope y los Heráclidas (enemigos de los pelópidas) decidieron recuperar el territorio del que habían sido expulsados. Pero fueron derrotados por los jonios en el istmo de Corinto. Hilo desafió en un duelo singular a Equemo de Arcadia; si ganaba Equemo habría paz durante tres generaciones y si ganaba Hillo permitirían la recuperación del Peloponeso, al final, Hillo fue muerto por Equemo, rey de Tegea.

Tres generaciones después, una alianza entre los Heráclidas y los dorios ocupó el Peloponeso, un hecho que Grote denomina invasión victoriosa.

El término invasión

La primera vez que se utilizó el término "invasión dórica" fue en 1830; otra alternativa era "migración dórica". Por ejemplo, Thomas Keightly usó "migración dórica" en Resumen de la Historia y en 1938 en Mitología en la Antigua Grecia e Italia utilizó "invasión dórica".

Ninguna de las dos palabras exactamente significa retorno. Estas más bien implican la incursión contra una sociedad de un pueblo proveniente de fuera de sus fronteras pero, ¿de dónde eran los dorios exactamente, del exterior de la sociedad griega o eran parte de ella? En Historia de Grecia (1784-1810) del escritor William Mitford se describe este período como "revolución dórica" y en los dos primeros volúmenes de Grote no aparece hasta 1846, aunque este último estuvo trabajando sobre el tema desde 1822.​

En 1824 salió a la luz Die Dorier del alemán Karl Otfried Müller, traducido al inglés por Tufnel y Lewis para publicarse en 1830.​ La traducción inglesa usa los términos "la invasión dórica" y "la invasión de los dorios", traducidos directamente del original de Müller "die Einwanderung von den Doriern" (literalmente: "la migración de los dorios"), conceptos que no poseen el mismo sentido; loq ue nos lleva a constatar que el término "invasión" ya se encontraba aceptado en la historiografía inglesa.

En el capítulo Einwanderung se menciona únicamente el Heraklidenzug, que significa el retorno de los Heráclidas. No obstante, Müller estuvo también aplicando el sentido de Völkerwanderung para este término, el cuál también fue usado para definir las invasiones germanas. La aproximación de Müller es simplemente filológica. En el intento de explicar la distribución de las tribus y dialectos formuló una hipótesis que era que la población indígena (los pelasgos) eran helenos. Su famoso párrafo inicial en la introducción dice:

Los dorios tiene su origen [der Ursprung des dorischen Stammes] en las regiones de la nación griega en el norte limítrofes con una gran cantidad y variedad de clases de bárbaros. Como las tribus que moraban en esos límites los dorios estaban totalmente faltos de información; tampoco hay ni un ligero trazo de ningún monumento ni tradición que indique que los griegos arribaran realmente de estas tierras.

Karl Otfried Müller

Müller también propuso que la lengua de los pelasgos era la antecesora del griego y el latín, que evolucionó al protogriego y que fue corrompido por el idioma macedonio y el tesalio por la invasión de pueblos ilirios (por ejemplo los brigios). La misma presión de los misteriosos ataques ilirios, llevó a los griegos a hablar primero aqueo (incluyendo el eolio), jónico y finalmente dorio en tres sucesivas oleadas, explicando de esta forma la distribución de los dialectos griegos en el el período clásico.

Los ilirios no pudieron invadir la bien defendida península griega, como sí hicieron macedonios y tesalios, pero sí empujaron migraciones a gran escala contra los griegos en tres ocasiones.

Los griegos del exterior por Kretschmer

Por el final del siglo XIX, el filólogo Paul Kretschmer sugirió la hipótesis de que los pelasgos son un pueblo previo a los clásicos griego, tal vez anatolios,​ retomando la teoría clásica de que existían vestigios estas tribus entre los hablantes griegos, en las regiones montañesas, como la rural Arcadia, o en la zonas costeras inaccesibles del sur. Esta visión deja a los protogriegos de Muller sin lugar de ser, pero Kretschmer no dice que los Heráclidas y sus aliados dorios desde Macedonia y Tesalia. Instead he removed the earliest Greeks to the trail leading from the plains of Asia, where he viewed the Proto-Indo-European language as having broken up about 2500 BC. Somewhere between Greece and there a new cradle of the Greek tribes developed, from which Proto-Ionians at about 2000 BC, Proto-Achaeans at about 1600 BC and Dorians at about 1200 BC exited to swoop down on an increasingly less aboriginal Greece as the three waves of external Greeks.​

Kretschmer was confident that if the unknown homeland of the Greeks was not then known, archaeology would find it. The handbooks of Greek history from then on spoke of Greeks entering Greece. As late as 1956 J.B. Bury's History of Greece (3rd edition) wrote of an "...invasion which brought the Greek language into Greece." Over that half-century Greek and Balkan archaeology united in an effort to locate the Dorians further north than Greece. The idea was combined with a view that the sea peoples were part of the same north-south migration at about 1200 BC.

The weakness in this theory​ is that it requires an invaded Greece and its mirror image where Greek evolved and continued to evolve into dialects contemporaneously with the invaded Greece. However, although the invaded Greece was amply represented by evidence of all sorts, there was no evidence at all of its hidden mirror. Similarly, the sea peoples failed to show anywhere except in the sea for which the Egyptians named them. Retaining Müller's three waves and Kretschmer's Pelasgian pockets the scholars continued to search for the Dorians in other quarters. Müller's common ancestor of Greek and Latin had vanished by 1950, breaking that link, and by 1960 although given lip service still the concept of Greek developing outside of Greece had seen its best days.​

Origen de los griegos en Grecia

Additional progress in the search for the Dorian invasion came about as a result of the decipherment of Linear B, an early form of Greek written in a syllabary. It became known as Mycenaean Greek. Comparing it with the later Greek dialects scholars could see that a development had taken place. For example, classical Greek anak-s, "king", came from a reconstructed *wanak- and a glance at Linear B turned up wa-na-ka.

Ernst Risch lost no time in proposing that there was never any more than one migration, which brought proto-Greek into Greece, and it dissimilated into dialects in Greece.​ Meanwhile the linguists closest to the decipherment were having doubts about the classification of proto-Greek. John Chadwick summarizing in 1976 wrote:​

Let us therefore explore the alternative view. This hypothesis is that the Greek language did not exist before the twentieth century B.C., but was formed in Greece by the mixture of an indigenous population with invaders who spoke another language .... What this language was is a difficult question ... the exact stage reached in development at the time of the arrival is difficult to predict.

In another ten years the "alternative view" was becoming the standard one. JP Mallory wrote in 1989 concerning the various hypotheses of proto-Greek that had been put forward since the decipherment:​

Reconciliation of all these different theories seems out of the question ... the current state of our knowledge of the Greek dialects can accommodate Indo-Europeans entering Greece at any time between 2200 and 1600 BC to emerge later as Greek speakers.

By the end of the 20th century the concept of an invasion by external Greek speakers had been removed from the arena, although it is still asserted as a minority view. There was and always has been only one Greece and one population of Greeks:​

Greek is now widely believed to be the product of contact between Indo-European immigrants and the speakers of the indigenous languages of the Balkan peninsula beginning c. 2,000 B.C.

Although the linguists had failed to return the Heracleidae, they had after a long Wanderung at last returned the Dorian invasion to Greece as an internal event.

Destrucción y final del Micénico III B

Meanwhile the archaeologists were encountering what appeared to be a wave of destruction of Mycenaean palaces. Indeed, the Pylos tablets recorded the dispatch of "coast-watchers", to be followed not long after by the burning of the palace, presumably by invaders from the sea. Carl Blegen wrote:​

the telltale track of the Dorians must be recognized in the fire-scarred ruins of all the great palaces and the more important towns which ... were blotted out at the end of Mycenaean IIIB.

Blegen follows Furumark​ in dating Mycenaean IIIB to 1300-1230 BC. Blegen himself dated the Dorian invasion to 1200 BC.

A destruction by Dorians has its problems (see next section) and is not the only possible explanation. At approximately this time Hittite power in Anatolia collapsed with the destruction of their capital Hattusa and the late 19th and the 20th dynasties of Egypt also suffered invasions of the Sea Peoples. Another theory, reported for instance by Thomas and Conant, attributes the ruin of the Peloponnesus to them:​

Evidence on the Linear B tablets from the Mycenaean kingdom of Pylos describing the dispatch of rowers and watchers to the coast, for instance, may well date to the time that the Egyptian pharoh was expecting the arrival of foes.

But who were the foes? The evidence on sea peoples indicates that some of them may have been Greek. Michael Wood suggests relying on tradition, especially that of Thucydides:​

... let us not forget the legends, at least as models for what might have happened. They tell us of constant rivalries with the royal clans of the Heroic Age - Atreus and Thyestes, Agamemnon and Aigisthes, and so on ....

In summary, the Mycenaean world disintegrated through "feuding clans of the great royal families."​ The possibility of some sort of internal struggle had long been under consideration. Chadwick after following and critiquing the development of different views, in 1976 settled on a theory of his own:​ there was no Dorian invasion. The palaces were destroyed by Dorians who had been in the Peloponnesus all along as a subservient lower class, and now were staging a revolution. Chadwick espoused the view that northern Greek was the more conservative and proposed that southern Greek had developed under Minoan influence as a palace language.

As a disinterested non-speculator Chadwick had become the grand master of Mycenaean studies, the last surviving member of the team of Ventris and Chadwick. Now that he had taken a stand and was on that account more easily assailable his influence waned. His theory of a revolution although it reechoed that of William Mitford nearly 200 years ago was not generally accepted. Chadwick faded away into meritorious but active retirement and the studies he had helped to found went on.

¿Invasión o migración?

The Dorian migration in H.G. Wells' The Outline of History (1920). The arrow for the Illyrians in the upper left corner shows that Wells was following Müller, but the arrows from the center downward are reasonably accurate.

After the Greek Dark Ages, much of the population of the Peloponnesus spoke Dorian; the evidence of Linear B and literary traditions, such as the works of Homer, is that they spoke Achaean before, and it must have been Mycenaean Greek. Equally as significantly, society in the Peloponnesus had undergone a total change from states ruled by kings presiding over a Palace economy to a caste system ruled by a Dorian master ethnos at Sparta. Whether these data demonstrate that a Dorian population entered the Peloponnesus from outside of it, displaced some of the previous population there and reduced much of the remainder to hereditary subservience, changing the main dialect from Mycenaean to Doric, is the major historical question for the period.

No one questions that these changes took place, but how and when? H. Michell, a Sparta scholar, says:​ "If we assume that the Dorian invasion took place some time in the twelfth century, we certainly know nothing of them for the next hundred years." Blegen admitted that in the sub-Mycenaean period following 1200:​ "the whole area seems to have been sparsely populated ..."

The problem is that there are no traces of any Dorians anywhere until the start of the Geometric period at about 950 BC. This simple pottery decoration appears to be correlated with other changes in material culture, such as the introduction of iron weapons and alterations in burial practices from Mycenaean group burials in tholos tombs to individual burials and cremation. These can certainly associated with the historical Dorian settlers, such as those of Sparta in the 10th century BC.​ However, they appear to have been general over all of Greece; moreover, the new weapons would not have been used in 1200.

The scholars were now faced with the conundrum of an invasion at 1200 but a resettlement at 950. What took the Dorians so long and where were they for several generations? One answer is that the destruction of 1200 was not caused by the Dorians and that the quasi-mythical return of the Heracleidae is to be associated with settlement at Sparta ca. 950. It was a migration easily accomplished in a military vacuum.

Zanjando el problema

The quest for the Dorian invasion had begun as an attempt to explain the differences between Peloponnesian society depicted by Homer and the historical Dorians of classical Greece. The first scholars to work on the problem were historians researching the only resources available to them: the Greek legends. The philologists (later linguists) subsequently took up the challenge but in the end could only bring the problem into sharper definition. Finally the archaeologists have inherited the issue with high hopes. Perhaps some distinctively Dorian archaeological evidence will turn up or has turned up giving precise insight as to how and when Peloponnesian society changed so radically.

The historians had defined the Greek Dark Ages, a period of general decline, in this case the disappearance of the palace economy and with it law and order, loss of writing, diminishment of trade, decrease in population and abandonment of settlements (destroyed or undestroyed), metals starvation and loss of the fine arts or at least the diminution of their quality, evidenced especially in pottery. By its broadest definition the dark age lasted between 1200 and 750, the start of the archaic or orientalizing period, when influence from the Middle East via the overseas colonies stimulated a recovery.

A dark age of poverty, low population and metals starvation is not compatible with the idea of great population movements of successful warriors wielding the latest military equipment sweeping into the Peloponnesus and taking it over to rebuild civilization their way. This dark age consists of three periods of art and archaeology: sub-Mycenaean, Proto-geometric and Geometric. The most successful, the Geometric, seemed to fit the Dorians better, but there is a gap, and also this period is not localized to and did not begin in Dorian territory. It is more to be associated with Athens, an Ionian state.

Still, the Dorians did share in the Geometric period and therefore to find its origin might be perhaps to find the origin of the Dorians. The Geometric originated by clear transition in the darkest of the dark age, the Proto-geometric. Families were so poor that they gave up bronze as a metal of jewelry and took to wearing simple iron rings and pendants. As for the sub-Mycenaean, their decoration is a loose and uncareful form of Mycenaean motifs, on which account they are generally held to be a refugee population. The question of why the refugees were haunting their former homes if the latter were in possession of the Dorians is part of the problem.

No answers are yet forthcoming. The logical break in material culture is the start of the Proto-geometric at about 1050 BC, which leaves a gap of 150 years. The year 1050 offers nothing distinctively Dorian either, but if the Dorians were present in the Geometric, and they were not always in place as an unrecorded lower class, 1050 is most likely time of entry. Cartledge says humorously perhaps with a note of whimsical frustration:​

It has of late become an acknowledged scandal that the Dorians, archaeologically speaking, do not exist. That is, there is no cultural trait surviving in the material record for the two centuries or so after 1200 which can be regarded as a peculiarly Dorian hallmark. Robbed of their patents for Geometric pottery, cremation burial, iron-working and, the unkindest prick of all, the humble straight pin, the hapless Dorians stand naked before their creator - or, some would say, inventor.

Apparently archaeology cannot reach the Dorians either. Perhaps the material remains do not always characterize the movements and territories of peoples. The question, however, remains open to further investigation.

Bibliografía

• Hall, Jonathan M. (2000). Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521789990. 
• Hall, Jonathan M. (2006). «Dorians: Ancient Ethnic Group». En Wilson, Nigel, ed. Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-97334-1. 
• Müller, Karl Otfried, Die Dorier (1824) was translated by Henry Tufnel and Sir George Cornewall Lewis and published as The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, (London: John Murray), 1830, in two vols.
• Drews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe CA. 1200 B.C. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.  Five editions between 1993 and 1995.
• Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Stanley M. Burstein; Walter Donlan; Jennifer Tolbert Roberts (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195097424. 

Véase también

• Ancient Greek dialects
• Comparative method
• Doric Greek
• Dorus, the eponymous founder
• Greek Dark Ages
• Historical linguistics
• Sparta
• Vedic Period

Enlaces externos

• The Dorians, Minnesota State University Ancient Greek Civilizations site
• Myres, John Linton (1910-1911). «Dorians». The Encyclopedia Britannica: a Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information 8 (11 edición). Cambridge, England and New York (printed): Cambridge University Press, Online Encyclopedia. Consultado el 4 de enero de 2008.  Note that the online edition omits the critical bibliography, which features works only in German, and includes Müller but not Kretschmer. Also the online version runs paragraphs and section headings together. The paragraph division is not the one of the article.
• S.W.J. Lamberts, THE ETHNICITY OF THE SEA PEOPLES
• «Makedonia». Pan-Macedonian Network. Pan-Macedonian Association. 1995-1998. Consultado el 29 de diciembre de 2007.